四级写作精选(九篇)
前言：一篇好文章的诞生，需要你不断地搜集资料、整理思路，本站小编为你收集了丰富的四级写作主题范文，仅供参考，欢迎阅读并收藏。
第1篇：四级写作范文
从命题的角度来看，2012年12月四级写作最大的新意其实不是“多题多卷”，而是图表作文题的出现，而且采用的是全英文命题形式（这样的命题形式符合命题人“既考写作又考理解”的考查初衷）。这表明四级写作的命题在稳中求变，估计以后会朝“多题”的方向发展，题目类型也会多样化，因此考生要全面备考，一定要了解论说文、应用文、图表作文与图画作文等各种类型作文的写作方法。而面对全英文命题形式，考生需要做到的是认真审题，避免因理解偏差导致作文跑题。
从考生做题的角度来看，新的命题形式对考生写作提出了新的挑战。据笔者对2012年12月四级写作答卷的观察，写作题目“Education Pays”的跑题率很高，多半考生的作文都不切题意。之所以出现这一情况，部分原因在于考生准备不充分，尤其对于写图表作文的备考不足，甚至毫无准备，因而在写作时存在一定的心理障碍；但更主要的原因应该是考生临场审题不周，导致理解出现偏差。那么面对四级写作考试的新趋势，考生要怎样做才能避免跑题、从容应对呢？
要改善写作中跑题的情况，考生需要过好审题关。具体来说，考生应从体裁、话题、内容要点、字数要求这四方面进行审题。下面以2012年12月四级写作题目之一“Education Pays”为例来具体分析。写作真题如下。
For this part， you are allowed 30 minutes to write a short essay entitled Education Pays based on the statistics provided in the chart below （Weekly earnings in 2010）. Please give a brief description of the chart and then make comments on it. You should write at least 120 words but no more than 180 words.
审题时，考生要从上文提到的四个方面进行一一考量。从写作体裁来看，考生要写的应该是论说文。而笔者阅卷时就发现有一位考生将作文写成一封信，这绝对是要被扣分的。从话题来看，考生要写的话题是“Education Pays”。很多考生望文生义，将写作话题简单理解为“教育付出”，考生如果仔细阅读图表上的标题“Education： A Worthy Investment”就会发现，题目给出的话题应该是“教育的投资与回报”。从内容要点来看，考生首先应该对图表内容进行简要描述（give a brief description of the chart），然后对图表内容进行评论（make comments on it）。最后，考生要明确写作字数，题目要求是120～180个单词，笔者建议考生将字数限定在140～160个单词，因为120个单词的作文内容可能不够详实，但字数太多了又会增加考生犯错的几率。
快速提分方略
即将参加2013年6月四级考试的考生应该采取什么快速提分方略呢？很多考生在考试前热衷于背诵写作模板，认为这样能帮助自己快速提高写作分数。但在笔者看来，单纯背诵写作模板并不是最有效的方法：一方面，考生死背写作模板的话很容易出现“所背非所考”的情况，最后等于白费力气；另一方面，笔者在四、六级考试阅卷时发现，考生使用的模板句式高度重复，比如“With the development of our society， more and more …”“There has been a heated discussion revolving around this issue of whether people should do …”“Only by doing so， can we …”“As far as I am concerned， …”等句式在答卷中比比皆是，而这样使用高度重复的模板句式最终肯定会影响得分。
如果考生想快速提升写作分数，笔者建议考生从备考“功能段落”入手。从历年四级写作的写作要求（无论是全英文形式还是汉语提纲形式）来看，四级写作题目要求考生撰写的段落按功能大致可以归纳为以下六种：描述现象、图画或图表（现象段），分析危害（危害段），分析原因（原因段），给出建议（建议段），陈述观点（观点段，说明支持或反对）、分析意义（意义段）。因此，如果考生学会撰写这六种功能段落，那么无论写作考试如何变化，考生只要按照写作要求去写相应功能的内容或段落即可。从近年真题来看，现象段、原因段和建议段这三种功能段落被考查到的频率较高，考生可重点准备。在考试时，笔者建议考生将作文写成三段，其中中间段落为主体，在字数上应多于首段和尾段。以2012年12月四级写作题目“Education Pays”为例，考生可将首段写成描述图表的现象段，将第二段写成解释收入差异的原因段，将尾段写成建议段或观点段。
那考生该如何学习写功能段落呢？首先，考生可以通过分析真题范文总结出各类功能段落的写作思路；其次，考生需要花大力气积累各类功能段落的常用句子表达（简称“功能表达”）。考生在选择功能表达时应掌握三个原则：①实用性，即积累的表达可用于写相应的功能段落；②灵活性，即所选择的表达应该是考生能够灵活掌握并能根据题目灵活应用的；③简洁性，即所选择的表达应该语言精练，可以有模板的痕迹，但考生应该能往里面填入实质内容，而不是像通篇废话似的表达。下面笔者列举几个常用的功能表达，供考生体会。
1.In contemporary society， it has become a trend for _____ to _____.
2.It is advisable for _____ to _____.
3.It is suggested that ______ should strengthen their awareness of ______.
4.Someone should educate， advocate and encourage _____ （not） to _____.
解析：这里的第1个句子为现象段的功能表达，第2～4个句子为建议段的功能表达。考生在考试时，根据写作主题和写作要求对上述功能表达进行适当的词汇替换和结构调整，就可以写出相应的句子。例如，针对这次2012年12月的四级写作题目“Education Pays”，考生可以利用第1个句子来进行现象描述，写成：“In 2010， it had become a trend for people with higher degrees to earn more money in a week in America.”也可以利用第2个句子来进行作文最后一段的写作，如：“It is advisable for youngsters in the US to pursue higher degrees and extensive knowledge.”
按照上文所讲的三个原则，考生在日常学习中可以通过多重途径积累功能表达，比如在阅读中读到阐述观点的表达可以积累，在范文中学到表述现象的表达可以积累。退一步说，考生即使背诵模板，也不要死背，而要明确所背句子所表达的功能是什么，这样考试时才能灵活应用。
备考步骤
以下是笔者总结的写作备考步骤，供考生参考。
第一，先通过“背写”（即背诵和默写）的方式积累功能表达和词汇。笔者建议英语基础较差的考生在备考时先别急着练习写作，而是“背写”一些功能段落和功能表达，道理很简单：考生如果没有正确的input，就不会有有效的output。在能熟练背诵和掌握自己积累的功能段落和功能表达之后，考生再试着利用自己掌握的表达进行模拟写作，写一些相似话题的作文。笔者所提到的默写主要是为了帮助基础较差的考生练习拼写，避免提笔忘词。此外，考生应该积累一些常用的亮点词汇，用亮点词汇替换常用词汇。下面笔者就列举一些亮点词汇，供考生参考。
1.用exceedingly/extremely/rather替换very；
2.用an army of/a great many/a host of替换a lot of；
3.用advancement替换development；
4.用positive/favorable/promising/perfect/pleasurable/excellent/outstanding/superior替换good；
5.用give rise to/lead to/result in/trigger替换cause；
6.用harbor the idea that/take the attitude that/hold the view that替换think that；
7.用beneficial/rewarding替换helpful；
8.用bear in mind that替换remember that；
9.用enjoy/possess替换have；
10.用shopper/consumer/purchaser替换customer。
第二，善于进行阶段总结。考生备考时，每经过一个阶段（如两周）都要问自己几个问题：自己所背诵的功能表达可以用来写什么类型的文章？该类文章的相关词汇或表达有哪些？由题目关键词可以联想到哪些相关表达？考生要谨记，没有复习与巩固，就没有提高。
第2篇：四级写作范文
关键词： 大学英语四级考试 写作技巧 英语写作
一、具体评分标准
大学英语四级大纲写作要求学生根据试卷上给出的题目，或规定的情景，或图画，或给出的段首句或给出的关键词，在30分钟内写出100—120词的短文。具体评分标准如下：
2分——条理不清，思路紊乱，语言支离破碎。笔者用四字概括就是乱七八糟。
5分——基本切题。表达思想不清楚，连贯性差。大部分句子均有错误，且多数为严重错误。笔者用四字概括就是稀里糊涂。
8分——基本切题。有些地方思想表达不够清楚，文字勉强连贯；语言错误相当多，其中有一些是严重错误。笔者用四字概括就是马马虎虎。
11分——切题。表达思想清楚，文字连贯，但有少量语言错误。笔者用四字概括就是清清楚楚。
14分——切题。表达思想清楚，文字通顺，连贯性较好。基本上无语言错误，即仅有个别小错。笔者用四字概括就是漂漂亮亮。
这些标准看似简单，做起来却不易。据统计，普通院校学生的四级作文平均分在7分左右，重点院校的学生作文平均分也是8分出头，这与9分的及格线相去甚远。⑴英语写作是中国学生的薄弱环节。学生往往下笔艰难。对自己写出的东西，是好是坏，是错是对，心中一点儿把握都没有。参加四级考试的时候，对写作题往往应付了事，只图得一点分，不要拉总分的后腿。很少有学生想在此题上争取高分。
二、原因分析
产生以上现象的原因有三：一是重视不够，二是缺少练习，三是不知应试技巧。大学英语的教学通常为一至两年，教师主要精力都用于抓听说和阅读教学。虽然每个单元课文都有写作练习，但是老师布置学生学做的并不多，因为作文收上来很难批改，工作量非常大。大学英语教师一般每人教授2—4个班。一百多名学生，一百多篇作文收上来，无异于抓虱子上头，怎么捉也捉不完。只有在大学英语四级备考的三周，抓综合测试时分一点点精力去抓作文。可以说，英语写作一直都处于被人遗忘的角落和大学英语教学的边缘地带，这就造成了学生畏惧写作，无从下笔的局面。
三、心得体会
其实，大学英语作文的教学，只要教学得法，费时不多就可以得到很好的效果。下面是笔者经过一段时间的思考而得出的心得体会，也可以叫做“应试技巧”，提出来与同行商榷。归纳起来有三点：求索、模仿、试笔。
1.求索
所谓“求索”，就是命题规律分析。大学英语四级考试作文试题的命题形式主要有两种：提纲作文和图表图画作文。提纲作文主要有以下几种形式。
（1）就同一问题的两种不同看法分析原因，然后谈谈自己的看法。
如2006年12月的四级作文题：许多人喜欢在除夕夜观看春节晚会，但有些人提出取消春节晚会。谈谈我的看法。
又如2008年6月四级作文题：娱乐活动多种多样，娱乐活动可能使人们受益，也可能有危害性。作为大学生我的看法如何。
（2）就某一事实说明情况，分析原因，展望未来。
如2009年6月四级作文题：Free Admission to museums.越来越多的博物馆免费对外开放的目的是什么？也会带来一些问题；你的看法？
又如2011年6四级作文题：Online Shopping（网上购物）：现在网上购物已成为一种时尚，网上购物有很多好处，但也有不少问题。我的建议……
（3）就某一问题进行分析，指出危害性，提出解决办法。
如2010年6月四级作文题：Due Attention Should Be Given to Spelling（要充分重视单词的拼写）：如今不少学生在学习中不重视拼写，出现这种情况的原因是……为了改变这种状况，我认为……
又如2010年12月四级作文题：How Should Parents Help Children to Be Independent？目前不少父母为孩子包办一切，为了让孩子独立，父母应该……
（4）就某一情况举例加以说明。
如2007年12月四级作文题：各大学开设了各种各样的选修课，学生因为各种原因选择了不同的选修课，以你自己为例……
（5）典型的书信写作。
如2002年1月四级作文题：就本校食堂卫生状况给校长写一封抱怨信。
又如2004年1月四级作文题：关于报考大学专业问题给朋友回信。
图表作文时根据图表提供的图画，数字或者文字等信息进行归纳总结，分析规律，把握主题，反映某种现象的作文。
如2002年6月四级作文题：Student Use of Computers.根据图表阐述大学生使用计算机的情况并解释原因。
图表作文在写作中应注意：（1）对图表做简要的主题介绍；（2）进行横向，纵向比较，寻找规律性信息；（3）分析原因，寻找规律，把握主题；（4）根据信息得出结论。
2.模仿
一切作文，都是从模仿开始的。每个题型都打印两篇范文，供学生模仿。这十多篇范文，就是学生学习写作的启蒙老师。要求学生熟读，最好能背诵。这样，学生就掌握了一定数量的句型和表达方法，应试时可灵活运用，“他山之石，可以攻玉”。
3.试笔
教师从网上下载最近十年的四级作文题，要求学生每个题型都写一两篇。教师也可根据经验和想象，出一些作文题供学生练习。教师不必收上来修改，可由学生自己相互评改，选一些比较优秀的作文打印出来让学生相互学习。教师也可以重点在课堂上讲解一两篇。应对一个考试，学生不写上8—10篇作文是不行的。
笨鸟先飞早入林，从大学一年级第一学期开始，教师就要有计划地抓四级作文，费时不必过多，每周15分钟就够了。因为大多数写作是放到课外去进行的。一年抓下来，我相信学生在应试时，做作文题就胸有成竹了。一些肯钻研的学生，有希望在作文上得到高分。
参考文献：
[1]唐小涛.从大学英语四级作文考试探大学英语写作教学[J].大学英语（学术版），2005.
[2]杨慧中.从四六级考试看我国大学生当前的实际英语能力[J].外语界，2000.
第3篇：四级写作范文
构思简单 少犯错误
中心突出 层次分明
借助经典 名句俗谚
重在变化 避免重复
卷面整洁，书写清楚
1、打好腹稿再动笔，减少涂改。
2、书写漂亮的当然更好，达不到的最起码也要工整。
3、使用黑色水笔作答，白纸黑字，这样能够有效提高整洁度。
构思简单 少犯错误
根据阅卷经验，四级作文的主要错误集中在思路、标点、时态、单复数、结构等五个方面。
英语四级错误十错十察
1.句子成分残缺
We always working till late at night before taking exams.(误)
We are always working till late at night before taking exams(正)
2.句子成分多余
This test is end, but there is another test is waiting forus. (误)
One test ends, but another is waiting for you. (正)
3.主谓不一致
Someone/Somebody think that reading should be selective. (误)
Someone/Somebody thinks that reading should be selective. (正)
4.动词时态误用
I was walking along the road, and there are not so many cars on the street. (误)
I was walking along the road and there were not so many vehicles on the street. (正)
5.动词语态误用
The driver of the red car was died in the accident. (误)
The driver of the red car died in the accident. (正)
6.词类混淆
It is my point that reading must be selectively. (误)
In my opinion, reading must be selective. (正)
Honest is so important for every person. (误)
Honesty is so important for everyone. (正)
7.名词可数与不可数的误用
In modern society, people are under various pressures(误)
In modern society, people are under various kinds of pressure. (正)
8.动词及物与不及物的误用
Because of his excellent performance, the boss rose his salary. (误)
Because of his excellent performance, the boss raised his salary. (正)
9.动宾搭配不当
We must make solutions to the problem. (误)
We must find a solution to the problem. (正)
It also may help you to make success. (误)
It may also help you succeed/obtain your goal. (正)
10.根据中文逐字硬译
Let us touch the outside world of campus.
Let’s keep in touch with the world outside of the campus.
第4篇：四级写作范文
关键词：大学 英语 四级考试 写作
一、大学英语四级写作现状
大学英语四级考试当中学生经常会因为自身英语的听说读写几方面的能力差影响考试的通过率，一般大学生都把英语四级考试看成是大学学习过程中最为关键的一项考试。分析大学英语四级考试，其题型主要包括写作、阅读、听力和填空以及汉译英等几项内容，在这些考试内容当中，写作是比较重要的一项内容。大学四级英语考试要求学生在30分钟内完成120字的英语作文，这项要求对于英语能力一般的学生来说确实有一定难度。想要顺利的完成英语四级考试中的作文内容，学生需要具备扎实的语言基础和良好的表达习惯，很多学生不敢下手写，对于英语四级写作有畏难情绪，文章内容表达不准确，条理不清晰，很多学生还不习惯用英语思维展开文章叙述。通过对四级考试的特点进行分析，结合现在大学生的认知水平，提出了能够强化大学生英语四级作文水平的写作技巧。
二、大学生英语四级写作技巧
1、通过审题确定体裁
在写作之前首先要确定文章体裁，其体裁主要有议论文、应用文、图表文等多种文体，只有明确要求的题材，才能按照文体特征展开写作。
2、确定主题句
在分析写作要求之后，学生要确定写作思路，首先要写出文章的主题句，由此引开自己的写作思维，保证主题句切合题目要求，和表述对象相吻合。段落的主题句对全段有引领的作用，一个优秀的主题句不仅能够切合题目，还能因此展开文章拓展，帮助读者确定文章主旨。所以，在写作的时候要保证主题句切题。
3、三段作文法
大学英语四级考试主要考察议论文的写作，一般以论文都采取三段式的结构写法，即开头段提出论题，中间段开展论证，结尾段得出结论，其写作技巧主要由此展开
第一，开头段。
好的文章开头能够引起人阅读的兴趣，文章开头要结合主体内容引出后文内容，争取简明生动的提出主题引发读者兴趣，揭示主题内容，确定写作目的，激感共鸣。作文开头主要有以下记住写法，首先是引用法，由名人名言或谚语等代表他人论点的内容作为文章开头；其次是定义法，解释并定义文章的关键词语，确定写作范围和文章主题；再次是数字法，根据其他报道的具有说服力的数字作为开头，引起读者注意；还有就是开门见山发，在开始点明自身观点并展开论述；再有就是间接开头法，由他人论点叙述入手提出个人看法；最后是概括法，概括文章内容现状，以此引出主题。当然，在实际写作过程中可以融合多种写作手法引出文章内容。
第二，中间段。
文章的中间段是发展延伸文章首段所提出的文章主题的部分，中间段和文章主题联系紧密，主体对文章中间段有限制作用，中间段要围绕主题观点展开讨论，也就是文章中间段要结合不同的说明角度，对文章的主题展开叙述和论证，一般中间段主要通过例证法、比较法和因果法等多种方式展开论证。
第三，结尾段。
文章的结尾段是总结并升华文章思想的部分，其对主题有进一步的强化作用。优秀的尾段应该简洁明朗，寓意深远。也就是说，文章的结尾段要和开头相照应，并且要达到总结全文的目的，留给读者深刻的印象。文章结尾段的写法主要有以下几种，首先就是总结法或者重述法，也就是在文章的结尾部分重新强调文章的主要思想，要在思想一致的同时改变原有主题句的句式和措辞；其次就是建议法，也就是分析比较前文的问题，最终提出解决方法和建议，这种方法一般用在具有争论和说理性的文章写作中；再有就是预测法，结合前文的论点，分析其日后的发展，也可以面向读者提出警告和期望；还有就是展望及期望法，写出对未来的展望和对读者的行为期望；最后就是反问法，也就是通过问句的形式肯定展现的意义，实现对文章主旨的强化，由此刺激读者思考。
这些内容都是对大学英语四级考试中写作常用的三段法的写作技巧的总结，除此之外考生要注意对文章进行篇幅安排，保证满足文章字数要求的同时不超过其最高标准。写的越多，就越有可能暴露自身的语言弱点，还会造成不必要的时间浪费，对文章主题的深入也会有不良影响。我们可以在大学英语四级考试写作中运用三段式方法，采取十二句作文法，每一段写四句话，这四句话包括主题句、两三句拓展句和结论句共四句内容，每句保持十多个字的内容，这不仅满足了作文的字数要求，还能避免言多有失的状况出现。
三、强化修改
在四级考试的时候，学生可以重点考虑以下几方面对文章进行修改。首先就是检查大小写和单词拼写的正确定；其次是检查动词的时态和语态以及人称应用，还有主谓关系是否准确；再次要考虑词性的准确定；还有就是思考名词单复数和代词、指代关系的一致性；另外就是句子的完整程度和标点符号的正确运用。
四、结论
通过分析可知，只有掌握正确的写作方法，在平时加强练习，提高语言基础，融合写作技巧，才能写出满足考试要求的作文。
参考文献：
第5篇：四级写作范文
的课题。本文通过对非英语专业大学生四级后的实用英语写作课程问卷调查和访谈，对所得数据进行定性和定量综合分析，并结合实用英语写作教学的特点，从教学内容，教学方法，教学方式和手段等方面对后续课程的教学设计进行探讨。
关键词：实用英语；写作课程；大学英语四级
中图分类号：G642.3 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1002-4107（2012）12-0053-04
实用英语写作技能是大学生英语综合能力的一个有机组成部分，也是社会要求的适应性人才所具备的基本交际能力。然而，目前，大多数高校的大学英语教学尚未开设基础写作课，只有少数学校在四级后将实用英语写作作为选修或是后续课程开设。探讨如何以实用英语写作教学为切入点，培养非英语专业学生的英语综合应用能力和交际能力无疑是一个重要的课题。
在国内大学英语写作研究中，写作教学一直是研究者关注的焦点（黄建滨，于书林[1]，秦朝霞[2]，王文宇，王立非[3]，姚兰，程骊妮[4]，赵俊峰等[5]）。大多数文章是“以具体教学实践为研究基点”，“具体探讨各类教学方法在实践中的应用”[6]，而关于实用英语写作课程的整体研究比较匮乏。杨俊、贾国栋通过介绍华南理工大学实用英语写作教学的课程设计与具体实践[7]，探讨将实用英语写作纳入大学英语精读课堂的新模式；黄东花以英语专业二年级学生为研究对象进行一次采用体裁教学法进行实用英语写作教学的实证研究[8]；罗立胜等介绍清华大学自1997年以来以实用性英语教学为基点开展的大学英语教学改革[9]，其主要目的是为了加强学习者的语言产出技能，即口语和写作，其改革的主要对象是英语整体水平达到大纲要求的非英语专业本科生。而对于如何在大学英语后续阶段进一步提高学生的写作能力，尤其是实用英语写作技能的研究比较少见。本文将在问卷调查的基础上，分析四级后A层学生对实用英语写作教学的认识和需求，以期为大学英语后续阶段实用英语写作课程的开设提供参考和借鉴。
一、调查对象及方法
（一）研究对象
华中农业大学2009级非英语专业本科生，其中A层学生（新生在入学英语分级考试后，被分为A、B两个层次， 分别进入二、一级学习），1―3学期完成基础阶段的英语学习，参加全国大学英语四级考试，第四学期选修指定后续课程。这些学生的英语整体水平良好，具备了较强的英语读写能力。本次调查在六个选修并完成了实用英语写作课程的班级中进行，参加人数合计213人，收回有效问卷178份。
（二）调查工具和方法
采用问卷调查法和学生访谈方式。调查问卷共有13道选择题，主要涉及学习动机、学习需求和学习效果、教学方法、教学模式、教材和教学设置等教与学两方面的问题。完成问卷后，随机挑选不同专业的8名学生进行面谈，对访谈进行录音和文字转写。面谈主要问及学生完成问卷时的主观认识、态度及原因。结合转写录音材料和问卷所得数据进行定性和定量综合分析。
二、调查结果及分析
（一）关于学
1.学习动机
表1 希望进一步提高 表2 是否对今后的学业和
的英语应用能力中 职业发展有帮助
表1显示：在“希望通过大学英语后续阶段的学习进一步提高的英语应用能力中”，近一半的学生将口语能力排在首位，仅19.1%的学生选择写作能力。虽然两个比例悬殊，但在五项能力中，写作能力仅次于口语能力。参与访谈的学生普遍认为，口语是使用最频繁、最薄弱的环节。口语和写作都是主观性强的语言输出能力，是学生最薄弱的两项。然而，在目前的大学英语教学中，对写作教学的重视程度却远不及口语教学。因此，绝大部分学生希望通过选修实用英语写作课程提高写作能力。
表2显示：超过九成（92.1%）的学生认为实用英语写作能力的培养对其“今后的学业和职业发展有帮助”或是“非常有帮助”。具体说来，71.3%的学生认为写作课有助于他们“参加国家英语六级考试、硕士研究生入学英语考试”；66.3%的学生认为实用英语写作能力的培养有利于将来“从事涉外交际的日常活动和业务往来中的书面交流”。接近一半（48.3%）的学生认识到写作课对其“进行学术英语论文的阅读与写作”有帮助。仅有36.5%的学生认为较强的实用英语写作能力可以助其“出国寻找更好的受教育和工作的机会”。被调查者均是大二学生，一方面尚未摆脱应试教育的影响，对学业发展的认识仍局限于通过各种考试；另一方面尚未开始专业课的学习，对学术论文的阅读和写作接触甚少。此外， 农林院校大学生出国谋发展的比例不及其他综合性大学。
2.学习需求
表3 本学期开设的写作课的哪些模块吸引你（多项选
择）
表4 开设实用英语写作系列课程的必要性
第6篇：四级写作范文
It’s found that Chinese college students’ English language ability has greatly improved in recent years(from 1992 to 2003). However， the English writing ability is almost stagnant. In order to find out the reasons for this phenomenon， this thesis， based on the previous findings， analyzes the content validity of CET-4/6 writing tests， and compares the scoring criteria of CET-4/6 writing tests with those of College Entrance Examination(CEE) and with Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).The analysis and comparison point out such problems as the content validity， the requirements in the number of words， the form of the proposition， the scoring criteria. The existence of these problems has certain harmful backwash effects on college English writing teaching of college students， for example， the deficiency of the content， the dullness of the writing， etc. In line with the previous findings， the paper proposes some effective suggestions about college English writing test. It is hoped that the present study will be helpful for both college English writing and English teaching.
[Key Words] CET-4/6; writing tests; writing teaching; content validity; backwash effects.
【摘 要】写作测试是一种综合测试，它不仅能考查学生的输出性技能，同时也能考查学生的接收性技能，不仅可以测验学生的词汇、用法、语法等语言要素，也可以测验学生的组织能力、分析能力、表达能力、逻辑推理、对各种语体的掌握等。它能同时测试语言的各个层次和范畴，所以说，写作测试能真正反映一个人的语言能力。
基于近十几年来（1992--2003）的情况调查，我国大学生的英语水平有了很大的提高，但是英语写作能力一直停滞不前。本文就其原因对大学英语四级、六级考试中的写作测试部分的内容效度加以分析，并把写作测试部分的评分标准与高考、美国托福考试等考试中的英语写作的评分标准进行比较之后发现，大学英语四、六级考试的写作测试的内容效度、词数要求、命题形式和评分标准等都存在一定的问题。这对大学生英语写作教学产生了一定的负面影响，同时也暴露了大学生写作中存在的一些普遍问题，例如内容贫乏、语言干瘪等。本文分析了写作测试和写作教学存在的多种问题，并对此提出了一些建议，旨在提高学生的写作能力和改进写作教学。
【关键词】大学英语四、六级考试；写作测试；写作教学；内容效度；后效作用。
1.Introduction
In recent years， the college students’ English ability has apparently improved.
However， students have hardly made any progress in English writing ability. The scoring rates in such parts as listening， reading， vocabulary and grammar of CET-4/6 have gradually increased， but the average marks of the writing part always range from 6 to 7. In order to find out the reasons for the low marks in the writing part， many experts and scholars have done a lot of investigation and research. Some believe that it has something to do with the examination-oriented education system which underestimates students’ writing ability[1].Some think that the research of theories on college English writing teaching is not enough[2]. All these analyses have yielded certain positive results. However， they haven’t integrated testing with teaching organically， proceeding either simply from CET-4/6 or simply from college English writing teaching. This thesis based on a detailed analysis of the content validity and the scoring criteria of writing tests in CET-4/6， points out the harmful backwash effects of CET-4/6 writing tests on college English writing teaching， and provides several useful suggestions on college English writing teaching.
2.Development of Language Testing
2.1 Different approaches to language testing
“Carroll(1968) provides the following definition of a test: a psychological or education test is a procedure designed to elicit certain behavior from which one can make inferences about certain characteristics of an inpidual” [3].
Generally speaking， there are three main periods in the development of language testing: pre-scientific testing， psychometric-structuralist testing， communicative language testing (or psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic testing). Accordingly， “there exist four main approaches to language testing: the essay-translation approach， the structuralist approach， the integrative approach， and the communicative approach”[4].
In the pre-scientific stage， people believe that language testing just means checking whether or not students have remembered the knowledge of a language. The essay-translation approach is commonly referred to as the pre-scientific stage of language testing. No special skill or expertise in testing is required: the subjective judgment of the teacher is considered to be of paramount importance. Tests usually consist of essay writing， translation， and grammatical analysis. The test also have a heavy literary and cultural bias[5].
In 1900s， the structural linguistics and behaviorist psychology occupied the leading position. Structural linguistics believes that language is a system of speech sounds， arbitrarily assigned to the objects， stated and referred for human communication. The theory of behaviorist psychology is also called S-R theory. It is characterized by emphasis on externally observable response(R) to specific stimuli(S). Behaviorist sees language as a series of learned response to stimuli. Under the influence of the structural linguistics and behaviorist psychology， the psychometric-structuralist testing and the structuralist approach come into being. This approach is characterized by the view that language learning is chiefly concerned with the systematic acquisition of a set of habits. It draws on the work of structural linguistics， especially the importance of contrastive analysis and the need to identify and measure the learner’s mastery of the discrete elements of the target language : phonology， vocabulary and grammar. The skill of listening， speak， reading， and writing are also separated from each other as much as possible because it is considered essential to test one thing at a time. As a result， the need for statistical measures of reliability and validity is considered to be of the utmost importance: hence the popularity of the discrete point testing. Discrete point testing refers to the testing of one element at one time， item by item. Multiple choice is the typical example of it .
However， discrete point testing neglects the context and discourse. In the 1970s， people who believe in the unitary competence hypothesis(UCH) advocate the integrative approach .This approach involves the testing of language in context and is thus concerned primarily with meaning and the total communicative effect of discourse. Thus， integrative tests are concerned with a global view of proficiency and are often designed to assess the learner’s ability to use two or more skills simultaneously. Integrative tests are best characterized by the use of cloze testing and of dictation [6] as well as writing composition， making notes while listening to a lecture， etc.
Nowadays， the communicative language testing becomes more and more important and popular. Testing means not communicative testing of language but the testing of communicative language. Communicative tests are concerned primarily with how language is used in communication. It aims to incorporate tasks which approximate as closely as possible to those facing the students in real life. Success is judged in terms of the effectiveness of the communication which takes place rather than formal linguistic accuracy [7]. 2.2 Relationship between testing and teaching
Both language testing and language teaching are based on linguistics and psychology. They followed the disciplinary trends in linguistic and psychological theories. Both testing and teaching are so closely interrelated that it is virtually impossible to work in either field without being constantly concerned with the other. The proper relationship between testing and teaching is that of partnership. Tests may be constructed primarily as devices to reinforce learning and to motivate the students or primarily as a means of assessing the students’ performance in the language. Standardized tests and public examinations， in fact， may exert such a considerable
Influence on the average teachers that they are often helpful to decide the kind of teaching that takes place before the tests. Over the years language teachers who want to be able to use tests as part of their classroom teaching[8].
The effect of testing and learning is known as backwash [9]. Backwash can be harmful or beneficial. If a test is regarded as important， the preparation for it can come to dominate all teaching and learning activities. And if the test content and test techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course， then there is likely to be harmful backwash. If the skill of writing， for example， is tested only by multiple-choice items， then there is great pressure to practice such items rather than practice the skill of writing itself. This is clearly undesirable. However， backwash needs not always be harmful; indeed it can be positively beneficial. When the teaching is good and proper， and the testing is not， teaching is then likely to suffer from harmful backwash. When teaching is poor or inappropriate， testing is then able to exert a beneficial backwash. Testing should be supportive of good teaching and ， when necessary， exert a corrective influence on bad teaching. If testing always had a beneficial backwash on teaching， it would have a much better reputation amongst teachers.
Besides， the teaching profession can also make two contributions to the improvement of testing: they can write better tests themselves， and they can put pressure on others， including professional testers and examining boards， to improve their tests [14] For example， Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) originally consisted of only multiple-choice items， but no writing tests. Many years passed， testers maintained that it was simply impossible to test the writing ability of hundreds of thousands of candidates by means of a composition: it was impracticable and the results， anyhow， would be unreliable. “Yet in 1986 a writing test (Test of Written English)， in which candidates actually have to write for 30minutes， was introduced as a supplement to TOEFL， and already many colleges in the United States are requiring applications to take this test in addition to TOEFL. The principal reason given for this change was pressure from English language teachers who had finally convinced those responsible for the TOEFL of the overriding need for a writing test which would provide beneficial backwash”[10].
3. Testing the Writing Skills
3.1 The writing skills
Four major skills in communication through language are often broadly defined as listening， speaking， reading and writing. In many situations where English is taught for general purposes， these skills should be carefully integrated and used to perform as many genuinely communicative tasks as possible. Where this is the case， it is important for the test writer to concentrate on those types of test items， which appear directly relevant to the ability to use language for real-life communication. As regards writing， test writers usually assess the students’ writing ability in the form of letters， reports， memos， messages， instructions， and accounts of past events， etc.
The writing skills are complex and sometimes difficult to teach and to test， requiring mastery not only of grammatical and rhetorical devices， but also of conceptual and judgmental elements. Heaton “grouped the many and varied skills necessary for writing good prose into five general components or main areas:
Language use: the ability to write correct and appropriate sentences;
Mechanical skills: the ability to use correctly those conventions peculiar to the written language – e.g. punctuation， spelling;
Treatment of content: the ability to think creatively and develop thoughts， excluding all irrelevant information;
Stylistic skills: the ability to manipulate sentences and paragraphs， and use language effectively;
Judgmental skills: the ability to write in an appropriate manner for a particular purpose with a particular audience in mind， together with an ability to select， organize and order relevant information [11].
3.2 Different writing tasks and different standards
An attempt should made to determine the types of writing tasks with which the students are in face of every day. Royal Society of Arts explicitly states the kinds of writing tasks its examinations test and the standards of writing expected in performance of those tasks.
A successful candidate will have passed an examination designed to test ability to produce a selection of the following types of writing:
(1)Basic level: letter; postcard; diary entry; forms. It requires no confusing errors of grammar or vocabulary; a piece of writing legible and readily intelligible; able to produce simple unsophisticated sentences.
(2)Intermediate level: as basic level， plus guide; set of instructions. It requires accurate grammar， vocabulary and spelling， though possibly with some mistakes which do not destroy communication; handwriting generally legible; expression clear and appropriate， using a fair range of language; able to link themes and points coherently.
(3)Advanced level: as intermediate level， plus newspaper reports; notes. It requires
extremely high standards of grammar， vocabulary and spelling; Easily legible handwriting; no obvious limitations on range of language candidate is able to use accurately and appropriately; ability to produce organized， coherent writing， displaying considerable sophistication[12].
3.3 Obtaining reliable scoring of writing
In order to score as reliably as possible， scorers should obtain appropriate and reliable scoring of writing. The process of scoring can be either holistic or analytic.
3.3.1 Holistic scoring
Holistic scoring (often referred to as impressionistic scoring ) involves the assignment of a single to a piece of writing on the basis of an overall impression of it as a whole[17] Each paper is scored using an agreed scale and an examinee’s score is the average of the combined marks. The notion of impression marking specifically excludes any attempt to separate the discrete features of a composition for scoring purposes.
Holistic scoring has two main advantages:1)it is very rappid;2)if well conceived and well organized， holistic scoring in which each student’s work is scored by four different trained scorers can result in high scorer reliability. However， the problem is that it is affected by fatigue， carelessness， prejudice， etc， of the scorers[13]
3.3.2 Analytic scoring
Ways of scoring which require a separate score for each of a number of aspects of a task are said to be analytic. These aspects usually include: grammar， vocabulary， mechanics， fluency， and cohesion.
There are a number of advantages to analytic scoring. First， it disposes of the problem of uneven development of sub-skills in inpiduals. Secondly， scorers are compelled to consider aspects of performance which they might otherwise ignore. And thirdly， the very fact that the scorer has to give a number of scores will tend to make the scoring more reliable. While it is doubtful that scorers can judge each of the aspects independently of the others， the mere fact of having five “shots” at assessing the student’s performance should lead to greater reliability.
The main disadvantage of the analytic method is the time that it takes. Even with practice， scoring will take longer than with the holistic method. A second disadv- antage is that concentration on the different aspects may pert attention from the overall effect of the piece of writing. Inasmuch as the whole is often greater than the sum of its parts， a composition score may be very reliable but not valid [14]
3.3.3 Holistic scoring or analytic scoring?
“The choice between holistic and analytic scoring depends in part on the purpose of the testing. Then the choice also depends on the choice also depends on the circumstances of scoring” [15]. Particular circumstances will determine whether the analytic method to the holistic method or the holistic method will be the more economical way of obtaining the required level of scorer reliability .
4. An Analysis of Writing Tests in CET-4/6 (From 1992 to 2003)
4.1 Introduction of CET4/6
College English Test， including Band Four and Band Six (CET-4/6)， in line with the Syllabus for College English Teaching， is a national standardized English Test organized by the Higher Education Department of the Ministry of Education. CET- 4/6was prepared from the end of 1986， and officially implemented in 1987， originally in imitation of TOEFL， widely administered standardized test of proficiency in English， developed and administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS) in the USA.
4.1.1 Constituents of CET-4/6
CET-4/6 aims at propelling the implementation of College English Teaching Syllabus. CET-4/6 consists of five parts: listening comprehension， reading compre- hension， vocabulary and grammar， cloze， and writing .The writing is a subjective part.
4.1.2 Aim of CET-4/6 writing
In order to test students’ ability that how to use English to express their emotion and how to communicate with others. That is to say the main aim of the test is how to use language[16]. The syllabus for CET-4/6 has fixed the type， content， and time arrangement of the testing of each part. The quality of the test can be judged by many criteria， such as validity， reliability， difficulty， discrimination， practicality， and backwash， etc. This thesis will mainly focus on the analysis of the content validity and the scoring criteria of writing tests in CET-4/6.
4.2 Validity of writing
Validity is the most important quality of test interpretation or use， or the extent to which the inferences or decisions we make on the basis of test scores are meaningful， appropriate and useful. Briefly， the validity of a test is the extent to which it measures what it is supposed to measure and nothing else.
One commonly referred to and most important type of validity is content validity. This thesis gives a detailed analysis of the content validity of the CET-4/6 writing tests. Writing as a test way， the writing part is the most validity part， especially in backwash teaching.
4.3 Content validity
A test has content validity if its content constitutes a representative sample of the language skills， structures， etc， with which it is meant to be concerned .This kind of validity depends on a careful analysis of the language being tested and of the particular course objectives. In order to judge whether or not a test has content validity， we need a specification of the skills or structures， etc， that it is meant to cover. Such a specification should be made at a very early stage in test construction . A comparison of test specification of test should be made at a very early stage in test construction. A comparison of test specification and test content is the basis for judgments as to content validity.
“What is the importance of content validity? First， the greater a test’s content validity， the more likely it is to be an accurate measure of what it is supposed to measure. A test in which major areas identified in the specification are under- represented (or not represented at all ) is unlikely to be accurate. Secondly， such a test is likely to have a harmful backwash effect. Areas which are not tested are likely to become areas ignored in teaching and learning” [17]
We judge the content validity of a test generally from the following three main aspects:1) whether or not the testing content is relevant to the testing aim?2) whether or not the testing content is representative?3) whether or not the testing content is fit for the testee.
4.3.1 Whether or not the testing content is relevant to the testing aim?
The requirements of writing in the syllabus for CET-4 are that: the tests should 1)write a composition of about 100 words within 30 minutes， and 2) make sure that the composition they write is able to express their ideas and thoughts correctly， no significant errors of grammar， and coherent in meaning. The aim of the writing part is to test the student’s basic ability of using English to express thoughts in written form.
The requirements of writing in the syllabus for CET-6 is basically the same as those for CET-4 only changes “100 words ” for “120 words ”， “basic ability” for “general ability”.
The requirements of 100 words and 120 words respectively in CET-4 and CET-6 seem to be consistent with the basic ability and general ability of expression thoughts descried in the syllabus for CET-4and CET-6. However， the requirements in the number of words of CET-4/6 actually cannot accord with the practical aim of communication of writing.
About in the beginning five gears of the implementation of CET-4/6， the tests is required to write a composition in which the first sentence of each of the three paragraphs has been given， and the tests just needs to extend the three paragraphs according to those first sentences. Generally speaking， this requirement is reasonable. Because the given three first sentences contain about 40 words， then the number of the words of the whole composition is about 140/160 words， and the length of a composition of 140/160 words is generally considered sufficient for and argumentation. However， the form of the writing in CET-4/6 has already changed. The tests is required now to write a complete composition according to a given topic and outline， but still about 100/120 words， This requirement actually cut short the length of the composition. We can find that it is impossible for the given topic and the outline to be clearly stated within 100/120 words. For example:
(1)We Need to Broaden our Knowledge (June，1994，CET-6)
Science and technology are indispensable to the development of our society.
Social science and natural science permeate each other.
College students in modern society should possess extensive knowledge.
(2)Looking Forward to the 21st Century (June，1992， CET-6)
How is the future of the development of science and technology in the new century?
What benefit the society can get from the new science and technology?
What problem will be caused by the new science and technology?
What is your view about the challenge of the new century?
If we require the testes to write such a complex composition of just about 100/120 words， it is obviously impossible for the testes to use specific details to clearly state their own opinions， and the composition they write is very likely to devoid of content. In this case， the practical aim of communication of writing cannot be achieved. Therefore， the testing content and the testing aim of writing in CET-4/6 are not quite relevant.
4.3.2 Whether or not the testing content is representative?
We know that linguistic competence is an abstract concept， invisible， and impossible to measure directly， so we can only test its visible manifestation and then make inferences about the competence. If we want to test the vocabulary of student， for example， it is impossible for us to test all the words they learn， and we just need to take a sample to test. In this case， the representativeness of the sample can directly influence the testing validity. Therefore， we can understand the representativeness of the sample from the point whether or not the sample fully embodies all the contents that are required to be tested.
In recent years， the writing tests of CET-4/6 are almost all in one form， requiring the testes to write a composition according to the given topic and outline. The outline restricts the content and the structure of the composition and also the pattern of the statement because almost all the testes write the composition simply according to the sequence of the items of the outline. And we can also see from the CET-4/6 writing tests of recent years that the structure of the outline is always in the inductive method. For example:
(1)Is a Test of Spoken English Necessary?(June， 2000，CET-4)
Many people think it necessary to have a test of spoken English. The reasons are that…
Some people hold different opinions…
My view is that…
(2) Should Reading be Selective or Extensive? ( June， 1999，CET-4/6)
Some people think that reading should be selective.
Some people think that reading should be extensive.
My view.
All testees write composition simply according to these outlines， and finally reach the similar conclusions like “So/Therefore…”， or “I think/In my opinion…”. Almost every year， the testee is required to write an argumentation rather than any other different style of writing. What’s more， the argumentations are almost all in one form，
Which lead to the fact that the testee always writes the similar composition ever year.
This kind of testing is not so representative.
4.3.3 Whether or not the testing content is fit for the testee?
“Whether or not the testing content is fit for the testee ?” means that the testing
content should be neither too difficult nor too easy for the testee.
The number of words required in CET-4/6 writing tests is about 100/120.This
Requirement is porced from the requirements of other relevant English writing tests.
The number of words required in College Entrance Examination (CEE) writing test is
about 120.，while that of CET-4 is 100. Does it mean that the student’s writing ability is weakened after two years’ college English learning?
We can also compare CET-4/6 with TOEFL. There is hardly any difference in the
requirements of such parts as listening， vocabulary， grammar， and reading between the
two . However， the requirement of writing of TOEFL is much higher than that of
CET-4/6.TOEFL require the testee to write a composition of about 250-300 words
Within 30 minutes.
The above comparison shows that the low requirement in the number of words is， to a certain extent， responsible for the fact that the writing ability of Chinese students is far behind their ability in grammar， vocabulary， and reading even now.
What’s more， the requirement of writing a syllogistic argumentation according to
the given topic and outline is not quite fit for the testees， either. The situations given in the CET-4/6 writing tests are usually not meaningful enough. For example:
Changes in the Ownership of House(June，2003，CET-6) [18]
(1)Describe the changes in the ownership of houses according to the chart
(2)Analyze the reasons for these changes
(3)Explain the influences of these changes on the inpiduals and the society
State-owned
Private
This kind of writing task fails to motivate the testee to write. The testee usually has no practical thing to write， no purpose for writing， no audience in mind when they are writing.
4.4 Scoring criteria
According to the requirement of writing in the syllabus for CET-4/6，the Committee for the Guide of CET-4/6 lays down specific scoring criteria， which are pided into five grades:
2 – badly organized; training of thoughts in a state of chaos; fragmented language; most sentences having significant errors.
5 ¬– basically keeping to the subject; unclearly expressing the thoughts; bad coherence; many significant errors.
8 – basically keeping to the subject; partly unclearly expressing the thoughts; barely coherent writing; quite many linguists errors， some of which significant ones.
11 – keeping to the subject; clearly expressing the thoughts; coherent writing; a few linguistic errors.
14- keeping to the subject; clearly expressing the thoughts; writing in perfect coherence; generally no linguistic errors， only some minor ones.
From the scoring criteria， it is found some problems， firstly， the requirement of highest grade - 14 tends to be simply understood as whether the language is correct or not. In other words， the scorers judge whether the composition is successful or not simply according to the correctness of the language， such as word choice， gram- matical structure， etc， but have no requirements in the expression of content， the rationality of the structure of the discourse， and the use of writing skills. The composition becomes simply the carrier which reflects the linguistic competence， not the means for communication. This kind of scoring criteria of low level will certainly cause many problems to college English writing teaching and learning.
Secondly， if we compare these requirements and scoring criteria of CET-4/6 writing tests with those in the writing textbooks， or with those of the English writing tests in foreign countries， like TOEFL， we can find many differences.
Fawcett believes that an excellent English composition should at least includes: 1)a clear thesis statement; 2)two to four sentences that develop the thesis statement; 3)details， facts， and examples to develop each paragraph; 4)a logical order of paragraphs[19].
The writing test in TOEFL adopts the six-grade marking system. The criteria for the highest mark-6 are as follows;
Clearly demonstrates competence in writing on both the rhetorical and systematic levels， though it may have occasional errors. A paper in this category
is well organized and well developed;
effectively addresses the writing tasks;
uses appropriate details to support a thesis or illustrate ideas;
shows unity， coherence， and progression;
displays consistent facility in the use of language;
demonstrates syntactic variety and appropriate word choice.
From the comparison of these two kinds of scoring criteria， we can find out at least two differences.
(1)
About the content， CET – 4/6 has no requirement， while TOEFL requires adequate details to support the thesis or illustrate ideas.
(2)
About the language， CET – 4/6 requires no linguistic errors basically， while TOEFL has specific requirements in choice of words and building of sentences， like the change of words and sentences.
Of course， regarding the English level of college students in our country and other actual situations， the requirements and criteria should be a little different. However， this doesn’t mean that we need such low requirements and criteria. This kind of requirements and scoring criteria are harmful to the improvement of students’ writing skills and of college English writing teaching. 5. Harmful Backwash Effects of CET-4/6 Writing Tests on College English Writing Teaching
First， teachers are prone to teach writing catering to CET-4/6， regardless the development of students’ ability. Because of the low requirement of just about 100/120 words in the CET-4/6 writing tests， teachers usually ask students to write this kind of short composition as classroom practice or homework.. Maybe it is helpful for improving students’ ability to deal with the examination as it provides a similar situation like a mock exam. However， it is obviously impossible for the students to use specific details to clearly express their own thoughts in such a short composition， and what they write is very likely to be devoid of content. According to an investigation [20]， 51% of the compositions written by college students are deficient in detail. The biggest problem of the English writing ability of Chinese college students
lies in the deficiency of the content， or in the insufficiently unearthing the subject and detail. Both teachers and students mistakenly consider 100/120 words enough to test the writing ability and linguistic competence. What’s worse， because the given outlines in the writing tests of CET-4/6 are always in syllogistic form， teachers usually strengthen students’ ability in writing this syllogistic composition in classroom. As a result， many college students are not able to write any composition of practical aim of communication other than this dull and mechanical syllogistic one.
Second， students are prone to recite the model essays before taking the CET-4/6 in order to get a high mark in the examination .For example， the testees are always required to write an argumentation rather than any other different style of writing. What’s more， the argumentations are almost all in one form， writing a syllogistic composition according to the given topic and outline. As a result， most students recite various model essays. In this case， there is hardly any difference in the composition they write. The process of writing is not a creative activity any more.
Third， teachers are prone to consider the whole writing teaching as a process of correcting students’ composition， finding out linguistic errors， and then giving a mark according to the scoring criteria of CET-4/6 writing tests. When teachers correct and comment on students’ work， they simply concentrate on the superficial grammatical errors like the tense， voice of verbs， the usage of articles， the collocation of words， etc， but pay little attention to the overall arrangement of the discourse， the skills in the choice of words and building of sentences， the handling of the rhetorical figures， let alone the details of the content， We know that the requirement of “no grammatical errors” is far inadequate. For example， given a topic" My Ideal Job "，a college student can write a composition. So can a middle school student. Both of can clearly express their thoughts without any grammatical error. However， their writing abilities are certainly at different levels:
(1)Watching too much TV will affect your studies.(Low level)
Heavy exposure to TV will affect one’s studies.(High level)
(2)Many college students like to be teachers.(Low level)
The teaching career enjoys much popularity among college students.(High level)
Obviously， both of these expressions have no grammatical error， but they show students’ different writing abilities. If students are satisfied with the expressions of low level， their motivation to learn language will be weakened， and they would not like to spend time in improving the expression. So it is proposed to treat the whole writing teaching process seriously.
These are the three main harmful backwash effects of the writing tests in CET-4/6on college English writing teaching.
6. Suggestions on College English Writing Teaching
Through the analyses of the content validity， the scoring criteria， and the harmful backwash effects of the writing tests in CET4/6， several suggestions are provided on college English writing teaching.
First， the most important thing for the English teachers to do is to concentrate on the improvement of students’ writing ability， not the improvement of their marks of the writing tests in CET-4/6.This is not only a principle but also an essential aim of college English writing teaching.
Second， it is suggested that teachers practice students’ skills of writing compositions of different styles and registers， but not the syllogistic argumentations in their writing， not recite or use the regular and model sentences.
Third， teachers should choose appropriate topics and meaningful situations for students to write. The topics and situations are suggested to be such that they motivate students to write and to communicate with others in daily life， in order to improve their expression and speaking language.
Fourth， when teachers correct and comment on students’ compositions， they are expected to concentrate on the overall writing ability of students， including arrangement of the discourse， the skills in the choice of words and building of sentences， the handing of the rhetorical figures， the details of the content as well as the grammatical knowledge. This is helpful to improve their linguistic competence.
7.Conclusion
Both testing and teaching are so closely interrelated that it is virtually impossible to work in either field without being constantly concerned with the other. The proper relationship between testing and teaching is that of partnership. College English Test is a national standardized English test， to which both the universities and the society pay more attention. Writing test is a kind of integrative testing which examines both students’ productive skill and receptive skills. As a result it can help students how to use English to express their emotion and how to communicate with others fluently， but it requires effective content， valid outline， as well as effective English writing teaching. College English teaching and learning are both examination-oriented. They need interflow at any time.
The analyses in this thesis prove that the content validity of CET-4/6 writing tests is not so satisfactory and the scoring criteria are not so proper . Meanwhile， they exert many harmful backwash effects on college English writing teaching. In order to solve the problem， it is suggested that college English teachers can change their English writing teaching and concentrate on the improvement of students’ writing ability. There are some other issues about CET-4/6 writing test that remains to be solved. These and other related problems are to be further explored in future.
References
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[16] 杨惠中. C.Weir. 大学英语四六级考试效度研究[M].上海外语教育出版社，1998， P36.
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[18]丁晓钟. 大学英语考试历年真题精解[M].学苑出版社，2003， P233。
第7篇：四级写作范文
【关键词】负迁移 汉英思维差异 英语写作 语言输入
一、中介语与负迁移
有关负迁移理论的研究最早出现在20世纪的50年代和60年代。在1972年瑟林克尔（Selinker）最早提出中介语这一概念，即“第二语言和外语学习者在学习中产生的一种过渡性语言。”它自成体系，又在不断变化，向目的语（target language）靠近。中介语越靠近目的语体系，则学习者的外语水平越高；反之，中介语越接近母语，则学习者的外语水平越低。目前我国英语学习学生的英语体系就是典型的中介语体系。错误分析理论指出，语言学习中，学习者的错误由不同的过程产生，其中包括借用母语的模式即语言迁移（language transfer）。语言迁移又分为正迁移（positive transfer）和负迁移（negative transfer），负迁移也叫做干扰（interference）即套用母语模式或规则而产生的错误或不适合的目的语出现。
二、汉英思维差异
由于各个民族有不同的历史背景，文化习俗和语言，他们的思维习惯就会有很明显的本民族思维方式特征。许多学者都对汉英文化差异进行深入系统的研究，从他们的研究成果中我们可以看到汉英的思维差异主要体现在一下几个方面：
1.汉语是具象思维，英语是抽象思维
2.汉语重意合，英语重形合
3.在语篇结构上，汉语的思维模式是螺旋形的，而英语的思维模式是直线型的。萨丕尔―沃尔夫（Sapir-Wholf）提出的著名的“语言决定论”指出，语言对人们的思维具有直接的决定性的影响。由于语言和环境以及文化背景的巨大差异，人们的思维方式就有巨大的差异；反过来，思维方式的差异就会作用于语言学习，影响人们的外语习得。由于英汉两种思维习惯上的巨大差异，学生的英语写作中难免会受到来自母语汉语的负迁移的影响，从而产生各种各样的错误。
三、汉语思维在英语写作中的负迁移
写作是一个复杂的思维认知过程，思维创造过程和思维转换过程。从目的语学习者的写作中可以反映出他们的目的语思维能力， 而写作中出现的各种类型的错误也可以反映出母语思维对语言学习的影响。教学过程中发现，学生平时在写英语作文时往往摆脱不了汉语思维的影响，写出的文章不论在语篇组织还是遣词造句中都有明显的汉语痕迹。
1.语篇组织层面。汉语的螺旋形思维模式决定了汉语写作中往往采用的是迂回阐述，引出观法，或者含而不露，不明确提出观点。而英语的直线型思维决定了英语写作中往往先开门见山直抒胸臆，说明观点。在英语专业四级作文“Will Tourism Bring Harm to Environment”的写作练习中，很多学生在第一段引入部分中先谈“随着改革开放和经济发展，国家富强了，人民生活水平提高了，很多人会选择外出旅游……”这样的表达方式在以英语为母语的人看来，也许会产生离题或绕题太远的感觉。
2.句子结构层面。在句子结构层面，汉语重意合，英语重形合。意合即意义的连接主要靠句子内部的逻辑关系；形合即句子的意义主要靠语法手段。所以在汉语的句子中，讲究的是形散而意不散，意义上的连接不是通过关系词来实现，而是通过逻辑关系实现，所以汉语中常常出现并列结构，句式犹如竹竿，一个短句一个短句相连，像一节一节的竹节节节相连。在英语的句子中，讲究形合，强调句子的形式和结构的完整性，多用主从结构，定语从句，分词短语，介词短语等表示句子的主从关系，很多时候用关系词来表达意义的连接。因此，英语的句子结构更像一棵大树，结构完整，层次分明，主从明确。
其次，在句子结构方面，汉语和英语还有一个很明显的区别，即句子的重心的前后问题。英语和汉语的句子的逻辑重心一般都落在结论，推断，结果和事实上，但是重心在句子中的位置区别很大，具体说就是英前汉后。汉语句子一般在句首首先说明外部环境条件，交代好时间地点，原因条件等等，最后才说重要信息，所以汉语常用短句或简单句放在句子开始，逻辑重心落在句子尾部。而英语句子中一般在句首直截了当交代主要信息，其他次要信息多以短语形式置于句末。而很多学生在写作过程中由于母语的负迁移，忽略了英语的重心前置的特点，写出这样的句子：After super， my mom and I went out for a walk. 而符合英语思维习惯的表达应该是： I went out for a walk with my mom after super.
另外，在句子结构方面，英语和汉语还有主语存在和隐形的区别。在英语中，主谓结构的句子占绝大多数。英语句子非常注重主语，而且几乎都有主语。而在汉语中，一些句子的主语通常可以省略，在某些情况下，甚至主语必须省略，否则句子不通顺。所以与英语相比，汉语主语省略句多，无主句多。如果学生用汉语的思维模式来写英语句子，很多时候也会忽略主语，写出句法错误的无主句，比如：He is eighty years old. Because of his paralytic stroke， has been confined to his room for years. 这个句子中，原本该有的主语he被忽略了。只有添上主语，在句子结构上才是完整的，正确的，符合英语表达的习惯。
3.词汇层面。首先，英语是通过形式来表达意义的语言，所以在英语中名词，动词都有时态或数的变化。而在汉语中，名词或动词本身都不会因为时态或数发生改变。这是英语学习初级阶段需要最先解决的问题，也是语法中最初级的东西。然而在英语作文中，仍然经常能发现这一类的问题，这说明了汉语思维对英语学习的负迁移还是巨大的。类似的问题还有，在汉语中很多名词和动词是同一个词，而在英语中只有在合适的地方用了正确的形式才是符合规范的。比如“经济”这个词，在汉语“经济发展”和“当地经济”中，“经济”分别是做形容词和名词的，而在英语相应的短语中，就要用到它的不同形式“economical development”和“local economy”来表达。这个层面上的错误也是由汉语的负迁移带来的。
其次，汉语是具象思维，是动态的语言，多用动词；而英语是抽象思维，是静态的，语言中较多的使用比较抽象的名词和介词。汉语思维对写作上的负迁移在词汇的这个方面就体现为不擅长用抽象名词作主语，不擅长用介词来简洁静态的表达思想。
另外，在词汇层面，汉语负迁移还体现在忽略词语的内涵意义。内涵意义是一个词或短语由于指称而具有的超出概念意义以外的交际价值，它是概念意义以外的意义，往往与客观事物的本性和特点相联系。有的词虽然在不同的语言中他们的概念意义相近或相同，但其内涵意义却相差很远。另外还有一些事物或现象，在两种文化当中都存在或类似，字面意义又很接近，但实际却相差甚远。
四、克服汉语思维在英语写作中负迁移的对策
语言学家Lado在《语言教学：科学的方法》中指出：“我们不掌握文化背景就不能教好语言。语言是文化的一部分，因此，不懂得文化的模式和准则，就不可能真正学到语言。”从这些话中可以看出，语言和文化密不可分，在教学过程中，应该用文化语言观去知道英语教学，努力培养学生的文化习得意识，增强学生对于文化差异的敏锐性和科学的理解性，减少母语文化的干扰，防止和避免外语学习中母语文化的负迁移。比如在词汇教学中，除了词汇的概念意义之外，还要涉及到相关的文化背景知识和词源典故，以加强学生对词汇内涵意义的掌握，这样才能在写作过程中准确用词，提高写作水平。
根据Krashen的监控模式学说，有意识地学到的语言知识能起到监控和编辑的作用，用来检查和修正语言的输出。背诵是一种有意识的语言输入活动，通过有意识地输入，学生可以逐步积累写作过程中需要的语言知识和篇章建构技巧，并对写作输出过程进行监控和修正，从而尽可能的摆脱母语的干扰，更好的运用目的语。另外，背诵输入可以加强学生语言知识的积累和巩固，将显性的语言知识转化成隐性的语言知识，培养和提高学生的语感，这些对于学生摆脱汉语负迁移，更熟练的运用目标语都用积极的促进作用。
写译结合。通过这个方法，引导学生对两种语言进行对比，加强学生对英汉两种语言在思维模式，语言层面上包括句法结构，选词等方面的差异的理解，使学生熟悉两种语言的区别，减少汉语思维的负迁移，从而提高学生的写作能力。
另一种语言输入方法阅读也可以帮助学生增强对英语思维模式的适应和熟悉，积累和掌握地道的英语表达方法。因此老师可以鼓励和指导学生进行大量的阅读，使学生可以用积累的语言知识写作，从而提高语言输出质量。
参考文献：
[1]陈怀文.背诵和掌握外语[J].大学英语，1998（3）.
[2]王大伟.输出新论[J].外语界，1997（4）.
第8篇：四级写作范文
【编者按】
欲提笔，未成行；今执笔，浅蘸香墨。以一颗浅淡之心，一双纤素之手，墨染素笺，写下对鲲鹏研修人员魅力之欣赏、妙笔生花之赞赏，与，一份油然而生之敬意。
常常会感谢上苍，赋予我写文的能力！因为我知道，有了文字才有了我们的相识，才有了这朵因文字而盛开的鲲鹏之花，才有了彼此间于屏前的这一份守望！
——读《写作教学"进行时"教学设计观》有感
河南省驻马店地区正阳县陡沟镇尚田村小学 张新娜
海伦。凯勒说过："当一个人感觉到有高飞的冲动时，他将再也不会满足于在地上爬行。"我现在特别喜欢这句话，仿佛它就是专为我而写，是鲲鹏给了我斗志，让我有了高飞的冲动。而之前的我——一所偏僻的农村小学的语文老师，虽然骨子里是不甘平庸的，但"近朱者赤，近墨者黑",置身于一个消极度日的团队中，我像一只掉队的孤雁，找不到可以栖息的枝头。渐渐的，在弥漫着倦怠、抱怨、得过且过的氛围中逐渐消极下去，沉沦下去……
直到今天，我终于找到了心灵的栖息地，与高人为伍，与智者同行，才不会迷失自我。于是，我勇敢地捧起何老师的这本我原本连翻都不愿翻的"硬骨头"啃了起来。虽然想法幼稚，文笔拙劣，但也要勇于留下思考的点点滴滴……
今天，读了写作教学"进行时"的设计观一节，何老师提出来本位观、系统观、实效观和操作观。写作教学"进行时"作为一种全新的儿童写作课程，已深深地吸引了我，我不禁暗暗发誓下学期一定要用书中的理论指导自己的作文教学实践，开创出一条属于自己的作文教学之路！于是我对"操作观------教学设计的基本模式"情有独钟。反复读几遍后，有了自己的理解。
写作教学"进行时"之操作观，着眼于为广大教师提供一个可供操作的基本模式，读后感觉何老师在手把手地教我如何实施教学，从而达到"简简单单教写作，轻轻松松学写作"的效果，真是贴心至极！这一教学基本模式的"四部曲"为"任务聚焦"、"运思激活"、"尝试练习"、"融汇延伸"下面逐一谈我的理解。
任务聚焦，明确写作目标
目标就是课堂教学的标靶，靶子没有立好，再怎么用力也是落空的。写作教学进行时主张让教师与儿童进入教学过程前都有明确任务，知晓本次的教学目标和学习目标。那么，教学目标都有哪些呈现方式呢？
直接宣布目标
何老师的"读绘本故事，模仿说话、写话"的目标呈现方式就属此类。
师：我们一起读读本节课的题目------《读绘本故事，模仿说话、写话》。大家看看，本节课，我们要做的事有几件？（课件展示）
生：3件。第一件事，读绘本故事。第二件事，模仿说话。第三件事，模仿写话。
师：很好，让我们从绘本故事开始，边读边模仿，到下课的时候，看看到底完成了几件事。
此种方式开门见山，直奔主题，干脆利落。
创设情境呈现目标。请看以下片段：
师：同学们，又是一个春意盎然、柳绿花红的季节。天上的云，河边的柳树，回家的燕子，都在向我们报告春的消息。
（出示"征文通知"）
为了进一步激发小学生写作的兴趣，提高作文的能力，《小学生学习报》现面向全体同学举行征文比赛。要求写家乡的一种植物（或一片树林，一块草地，一丛野花），侧重写出这种植物的特点和作用。
师：同学们读了征文通知后，一定也想参加这次活动吧？那么，你能告诉老师征文的要求吗？
……
教师通过创设情境呈现教学目标，激发了学生的写作热情，变"要我写"为"我要写".
启发谈话法
（音乐和图画）春天美，春天秀。丝丝绿，枝枝红。(fanwen.chazidian.com)片片黄，股股香。老师和大家一起到到田野、到公园、到山坡春游，感受到了美好的春天。今天，我们就一起来说说春天里的发现吧。在师生看似闲聊中，明确了学习任务，课堂气氛其乐融融。
呈现目标的方式还有很多，比如在解决疑难中确定目标、商议确定目标等等。在上课开始就出示目标，意在让儿童和教师都做到心中有数。目标共享，既是在课堂开始就有明确的方向，又让儿童心里明朗，知道自己"将要学什么""能学到什么".同时也是教师对自我的提醒：不偏不离、锁定目标，实施有效教学。明确目标也便于教师在课堂结束前对照检查，关注目标的达成情况。
激活运思，让儿童有话可写
思维是语言的"先行官".教写作就是教思维。在教学设计中如何激活思维呢？何老师指出儿童写作对鲜活、生动、新奇、亮丽的感官刺激依赖比较强，这些都直接影响写作运思的活跃程度。因此，激活运思常采用以下几种方式：
情境创设，创设与写作目标相符合的情境，让儿童进入
感受，置换角色，充分体验后写作
旧知回忆，引入新知
运用先进的多媒体独特优势激活思维
在此四法中，我常用的是体验法和媒体刺激法。记得三年级上期，我想布置大家写一个自己喜欢的小动物——小白兔。在班内一问才知道近一半同学没见过或不是很了解小白兔，这样学生该如何写呢？对了！我大伯家喂养的不是有吗？我喜出望外，赶紧去他家抱一只。第二节作文课，我提着纸箱来到教室，学生都很好奇。我说："看老师给你们带什么来了？"说着从纸箱里拿出白兔放在讲台上，教室里顿时热闹起来。我乐呵呵地说："今天我们要来写一写小白兔朋友。现在我们按照从整体到部分的顺序，仔细观察，也可以轮流上来摸一摸。"听我这样一说，学生们兴奋极了，争先恐后地上来摸，有的用手轻抚它的绒毛，有的盯着它的三瓣小嘴瞧个没完，捣蛋鬼王小平居然把它抱在怀里，脸贴脸，吧唧吧唧亲了小白兔几口！我趁热打铁："说一说，你的观察结果。"
"小白兔的毛雪白雪白的，毛既柔软又细腻。"
"它东张西望的，好像在找妈妈。"
"白兔的眼睛像红宝石，可爱极了。"
……
学生说得差不多了，我见他们依然爱不释手，就没有着急布置写作任务。何不让学生和白兔多亲密接触几天，让他们亲自饲养、和它共同生活一周，这样孩子的体验不是更深刻更全面吗？我这样想着也就这样做了。一周后，孩子们交上来的作文果然内容丰富、甚是精彩。我想，正是亲身体验给孩子带来了最直观的、最真切的感受，他们才能下笔如有神吧。
还有一次，我让孩子写荷花，也有同学没见过的，实物又不好找，于是我就想到了多媒体。在轻松悦耳的音乐声中，一幅幅美丽动人的画面徐徐展开，有绿油油的荷叶，有各种姿态的荷花、有摇曳的小莲蓬……这声、光、影、色、动感、变化，一下子抓住了学生的眼球，思维瞬间被激活。
任何一种方式的运用，都是为了激活学生的思维，让他们"易于动笔，乐于表达。"所以，在教学中，所以方式都要视具体学情和教学目标而定，各方法灵活运用，变换出现，才不至于使儿童感到厌烦，才能真正起到激活思维的作用。
片段练习，让儿童放胆来写
写作教学"进行时"的写作练习都是以写"片段"的形式出现，把漫长泥泞的写作之路分割成一小段一小段，这样，学生就能相对轻松地走完当下的一小段，进而一步步走完全程。我在教学游戏作文《吹泡泡》时，"泡泡的美"的片段，学生不知从哪些方面来写它的美，用词也贫乏，语句干瘪，是个难点。而"怎样吹的"片段，学生总找不好恰当的小动作来表达，也是个重难点。所以，这两个片段都在课堂中完成，写作时有同伴、老师的相助，学生写起来容易多了。
融汇延伸，留住童年的精彩
传统的写作课堂，作文写完了，教学也就结束了。而写作教学进行时的课堂结束后，那载着童年的美好回忆的写作教学的余韵依然绕梁，飘荡着，回旋着，绵延不绝……
著名特级教师张祖庆的音乐作文《我向往----------》的第三板块的设计就和何老师提出的"融汇延伸"有着异曲同工之妙。请看片段：
第三板块：拓展阅读，升华向往
师：同学们描述的生活确实令我们向往。尤其是生活在大城市的好多成年人也渴望暂别喧嚣，期盼宁静。他们希望在无人打搅的地方，过天堂一般的日子。美国有一位作家叫亨利。大卫。梭罗，他告别亲友，抛开喧嚣的城市，来到一个叫瓦尔登湖的地方，在那整整住了两年，写了一本很有名的书，名字叫《瓦尔登湖》。里边有几段文字非常美，这样的生活也值得我们向往。
（课件出示文字，配上班得瑞的音乐，日光海岸》，师深情朗读）
在温和的黄昏中，我常坐在船里弄笛。鲈鱼在我的四周游泳，好像我的笛音迷住了他们一样……
师：听老师读了这段文字，你有什么感受？
生：这样的小湖，这样的生活太让人向往了。
生；就是做水中的鲈鱼我也心甘情愿。
……
师：是啊，这样优美的文字，这样宁静的瓦尔登湖，怎能不让人向往！同学们，这就是《瓦尔登湖》的不同版本，（出示《瓦尔登湖》的封面若干），老师建议大家读读这本书，再去看自己的文章，也许你会发现也许你的文章中，还有许多地方值得修改。读大师的书，与大师为伴，我们的人格将会越来越高尚，我们的文笔将会越来越曼妙。愿我们的同学也拥有这美丽的文笔。也愿同学们在美妙的书中，放飞自己的向往。
最后，让我们在狄金森的小诗《神奇的书》中结束这节课------------
（师生齐诵小诗）
第9篇：四级写作范文
希望之梦。
太阳是红灿灿的；
天空是湛蓝；
树梢是嫩绿的；
迎春花是娇黄的。
夏天是绿色的，
成长之梦。
太阳有些炙人；
树梢是翠绿的；
荷花如亭亭玉立的姑娘，
开放着。
秋天是金色的，
收获之梦。
树梢上结着又大又红的果实；
地上铺着厚厚的落叶地毯；
那令人欣慰的麦浪一起一伏。
冬天是白色的，
孕育之梦。
天虽冷，但不干涩；
大地万物都是白茫茫的；
在那白雪中若隐若现的点点红梅；
