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关键词:英汉语言;问候语;差异
问候语作为社交礼仪的重要组成部分,是人们社会生活中最为普遍的语言表达,在各国文化中都具有建立和延续各种人际关系的作用。通过问候语的使用,交际双方的身份、地位、角色以及二者之间的亲疏关系被突出出来并加以确定。它们也是一种常规用语,构成了各民族文化的一部分。在同一语言内部,其成员对问候语的使用表现为一种无意识的社会习惯;然而,在跨文化交际中,由于各民族文化背景的差异,人们在使用问候语时经常会产生一些交际失误。本文将从语言学不同角度对英汉招呼语进行了系统对比分析,通过内容、意义、结构、称谓、合作原则等方面的对比,指出不同语言的问候语在表达形式和实际使用方面的差异。
英汉问候语的功能和使用是相似的,但其在内容、语义、句型结构等方面却是大有区别的。接下来本文就将逐一从五个方面对英汉问候语的差异进行对比。
1
内容差别
中英文招呼语的重要区别之一就是问候语内容的差异。从古至今,中国人不仅把食物作为人的第一需求,而且还将其作为聊天的中心,所以人们一见面通常使用“吃了吗?”作为问候语。在英语国家,人们通常将谈论天气作为问候语,如,“Lovely day.isn’t it?”(天气挺好,是吧!),“It’s s0 cold today,isn’t it?”(今天真冷,对吧?),“It’s extremely windy today,isn’t it?”(风真大。不是吗?)。这种语言现象主要归因于英国多变的天气。由于英语和汉语一些习惯性的问候语在内容方面存在差别,所以在使用时应考虑文化差异,以免产生不必要的尴尬。例如。在英语中“你吃了吗?”并不是一种问候语,而是男士向女士发出的邀请。
中文问候语的内容可以根据说话双方的关系、场合、心理状态等进行变化。汉文化中习惯使用诸如“你在忙什么?”或“你去哪?”等传统的问候语。这类问候语的目的不是询问,而是表达说话人的关心。听话人可以用一些模糊的字眼如,“瞎忙”、“出去”、“有事”,作为回答。在英语文化中,一些个人信息被视作隐私,只有和非常亲密的朋友在一起时才会说起。而且英语问候语的内容也有很大的约束性。汉语中的“你在忙什么?”或“你去哪?”在英语文化中就会被作为一种对个人隐私的侵犯。曾经有一位外籍教师向学校领导抱怨经常会有人询问他要去哪里,要做什么,甚至陌生人也会这样发问。他认为他在中国没有人身自由。直到外事人员给他做出解释才罢休。由此可见一种语言中的问候语在其他语言中可能并不适合。
2 意义差别
英汉问候语的另一个重要区别就是表达意义上的差别。汉语和英语有时使用相同的问候语,但是由于语义场的不同,两者表达的意义也有所不同。
English
Chinese
Good morning!
早上好!
Good afternoon!
下午好!
Good evening!
晚上好!
从以上两者的对比可以看出,英语中的一些表达在汉语中都能找到对应。但是汉语的“早上”指的是8点以前,而英语的早上指的是从太阳升起到中午的这段时间。所以英语的“Goodmorning”比汉语的“早上好!”在一天内可使用的时间范围要长。而“Good afternoom”则是中午到下午6点之间一个较为正式的问候语;“Good evening”也是用于下午6点以后的一个较为正式的问候语。这两者在汉语的日常会话中都找不到对应项,除了在电视电台广播节目,或是正式的演说中出现。相同的例子还有英语中的“Hi!”是一个中性问候语,在汉语中也没有对应,只能根据发音用“嘿!”替代。事实上,“Hi!”同汉语中的“你好”意义相近,只是在意思上表露的不甚明确。
3 结构差别
英汉问候语在句子结构上也存在差异。例如,汉语也有将天气作为问候语的时候,但是汉语通常使用感叹句,如:“天气真好!”或“天气真糟糕!”来表达对好天气的欣喜和对坏天气的不满;而英语通常使用反意疑问句来表达他们的感情,如,“Lovelyday,isn’t jI?”,“Il’s extremely windy today,isn’t it?”,这在汉语中却是极为少见的。类似的差异还有在汉语中有很多可以用“是”或者“否”来回答的问候语,如。“上学去啊!”,“出去呀?”,“洗衣服啊?”但是英语中就没有类似的问候语。
随着现代生活节奏的加快,汉语的问候语在一些场合趋于简化。熟人在路上见面的话如果没有重要的事情,多以“嘿!”或“改天我再找你!”,“哪天我给你打电话!”。
英语问候语形式较为固定,回复也较为正式。如,
——How ale you?
——Fine,thanks./I’m fine,thanks,and you?
汉语问候的形式就较为灵活,并随着现代生活的步伐增添了新的内容。如,双休日打算去哪?,上网了吗?,你们单位效益怎么样?/现在在哪儿干呢?
4 称谓差别
英汉问候语的差异在称谓上也有所体现。首先,汉语的人称代词比英语要丰富。仅仅第二人称汉语就有“你”和“您”,而英语只有“you”,而且单复数均可用。一般而言,“您”是和较高的社会身份相联系的。地位低的人称呼地位高的人为“您”。而地位高的人称呼其下属为“你”。汉语中还有很多用于称呼对方的敬语和称呼自己的谦卑语。例如,称呼别人用“君”、“公”、“先生”、“足下”、“阁下”等,称呼自己用“鄙人”、“在下”、“弟子”等。尽管汉语的代词比英语要丰富的多,但是汉语问候语中的代词的使用却远不如英语的频繁。通过下面的对比我们可以看出这种差异。
(1)How ale you?最近怎么样?
(2)How is your work?工作怎么样?
(3)How is your family?家里都好吧?
“老”是汉语中常用的称谓前缀,用在姓氏前表示对被称呼人的尊敬。人们在称呼地位较高或者年龄较长的人时,多用“老”。如,“张老”,“李老”等。但是在英语中相应的翻译就变成了“Old Zhang”,“Old Li”,失去了尊敬的意味。因为在国外称呼对方“老”是很不礼貌的。在使用问候语时,直接称呼对方“先生”、“小姐”或“女士”即可。
其次,在中国,一个人的职业或头衔可以直接被用来当作称谓,如。赵经理、李校长、王工程师、张老师等。但是我们很少听到英语中有这样的称呼“Bureau Director Smith”,“Manager Black”, “Principal Brown”,等。在英语中,只有少数职业名称可以作为称谓使用,像“Doctor”,“Governor”,“Mayor”,“Professor”等,但后面均不加姓氏。
汉语的一大特色就是有一套复杂的亲属称谓体系。根据血缘关系以及年龄大小衍生出了不同的名称。例如,英文中的aunt在中文中就有若干对应词:姑姑(大姑、二姑),婶婶,姨妈,等等。中国人不仅用这些亲属称谓词称呼和自己有关系的人,还用于称呼非亲属关系的人或者是陌生人,以此来拉近人与人的距离。如称呼老人用“爷爷、奶奶”,称呼中年人用“伯伯、叔叔、大婶、阿姨”等。而在英语中,只有称呼亲属才会使用这些词汇,对于非亲属关系的人一般使用“先生”、“小姐”或“女士”。
5 合作差别
1967年,美国哲学家格莱斯提出了会话交际的合作原则。格莱斯认为,为了保证会话参与者能够持续地进行有意义的语言交际,要求每一个交谈参与者在整个过程中所说的话符合这一次交谈的目标或方向,这就是会话的“合作原则”。
大多数英语问候语都遵循“合作原则”,即被问候人都尽可能回答问候人的询问。例如:
A:How ale you?
B:Just fine.How’s your mother?I heard she WEkcJn’t well.
A:She’0 got a headache.but she i8 much better now.
B:Glad to hear that.
A:Thank you!
以格莱斯的“合作原则”为标准,汉语的问候语大多违反了这个原则。汉语问候语的回答较为模糊、笼统。
A:你家孩子出国的事情怎么样了?
B:估计还得几个月!
A:要好好培养啊,孩子学习好吧?
B:凑合吧!
在上面的例子中,A询问事情的进展是否顺利,而B只是告诉对方一个时间,并没有直接回答。第二个问题的回答更是模糊,或许只是为了表示谦虚。
汉语中的问候语还可以用一些和问候人所说话题不相关的问题来回答。比如:
A:您老要去提水啊?
B:你这是要去哪儿?
论文摘要:本文探讨中英问候语中语言和文化差异,并对提高跨文化交际的能力提出相关策略。
问候语是日常会话交际中必不可少的一部分,我们问候别人时,首先考虑的就是礼貌问题。那么具有不同文化背景的人在互相交际时所赋予这些准则的重要性是否会有差异?因为跨文化交际在很大程度上与交际者对这些准则和策略的恰当选择有关Brown和Levinson(19871认为,在社会交往中,人们用语言所体现出来的礼貌是有原则的,也是有差异的。这些原则要求交谈者符合总的礼貌行为;同时,由于人们所处的文化环境不同,对礼貌的衡量和评估标准也不尽相同,而这些不同的衡量标准也会影响交际者在谈话策略上的选择。为了解释英汉两种不同文化对于礼貌原则选择的差异,以克服跨文化交际障碍,本论文以Leech(1983)的礼貌原则和顾日国(1992)的礼貌准则为基础,对英汉问候语进行调查和研究。
一、中英相同的问候语结构、
通过考察我们发现,中英文化中的问候活动通常是先开始接触,然后互致某些问候客套,表示欢迎或乐意会面,再作寒暄。因此,问候语的结构一般包括以下组成部分:招呼、问候、欢迎辞语、表示高兴、寒暄。但是在许多情况下,随着问候情景的不同,问候活动中许多成分会随时发生变化,某些成分被省略。一般见面时常用以下问候用语:“Go0dmorning(早安)!”、“Goodevening(晚安)!”、“Howdoyoudo(你好)!”、“Howareyou(身体好吗)?”“What’sgoingonwithyourecendy(最近如何)?”、“How’severythinggoing(一切都顺利吗)?”、“Longtimenosee.Howareyou(好久不见了,你好吗?)”、“Iseverythingallifghtiwththechildren(孩子们都好吗)?”、“Haveyoubeenonholiday(最近休假去了吗)?”
二、中英问候语的礼貌原则对比
结合顾日国的礼貌准则与Leech关于礼貌的论述对英汉问候语语料进行比较,对问候语的研究结果证明了顾日国的观点——贬己尊人是中国特有的礼貌准则,并且是中国现代礼貌观念的核心。与Leech的礼貌原则中谈话双方要保持吃亏和受益相平衡的“得体准则”不同,中国的礼貌尤其表现在“贬己尊人”。保持平衡是不符合中国道德观的。问题在于以英语为母语的人很难理解中国“谦虚”的文化内涵,因为它与Leech的“谦逊准则”中的“谦逊”概念是不尽相同的。在汉语问候语中可以任意评论对方的生活、工作、健康状况等各方面的情况。如对方住院了,一定要问问详细的病情;对方遇到困难,一定要多宽慰几句。见面寒暄时,双方的年龄、职业、婚姻、家庭、身体等方方面而的情况,都可以涉及,几乎没有什么禁区。
由此可见,汉语问候语中,关切大于礼貌。这种关切缩短了彼此之间的距离,淋漓尽致地表达了亲如一家的情感。中国式的谦虚是一种自我修养的美德,贬己和尊人同样重要:英语文化中的谦虚则是尽量少赞誉自己的礼貌策略。这种对于“谦虚”的不同理解就会造成以英语为母语的人无法理解中国人出于谦虚而贬低自己的评论。
三、英汉问候语在礼貌策略的选择上不同
首先,在问候过程中,汉文化更注重交际过程的整体感觉,而不是某些词语或句子的表面意义。人们希望交际伙伴能够根据社会文化环境和情景推导出问候者的真实意图,体会其中的关切问候之情。其次,汉语问候语强调客套超过事实,这与汉文化把保持人际关系和谐作为语言交际的主要功能是相符的。相比之下,英语问候语则体现平等亲切,并表现出弱交际环境文化的直接明了。所以,汉语问候语是随机应变的,甚至是看见什么问什么、明知故问。例如,“出去呀?”,“洗衣服呢?”,“今天休息了?”彼此从这一问一答中体会的仅仅是其中亲切友好的感情。而这些对于西方人来说都是真实的问题,他们不明白这是打招呼,更不明白中国人为什么使用这种不和逻辑的方式。他们无法按照会话含义准确推导出发话人的真实意图,更无法体会其中的关切问候之情。这也解释了为什么许多英语问候语内容是中性题目,例如谈论天气或其他不涉及个人隐私的话题。
四、英汉问候语在内容选择上不同
虽然汉英文化中的问候语结构类似,但是二者的问候内容却相去甚远。中国人一般高度重视社会关系亲热,在相互问候的时候往往表现出对他人的关心。所以,我们中国人见面时,往往关心地问对方:“吃了吗?”或客气地询问:“你到哪里去?”、“你在忙什么?”大家都习以为常,因为“民以食为天”嘛!而且彼此心里也}苛楚,“去哪里”只是友人在路上相遇时说的一句客套话。但英语国家不用这些话,甚至习惯上认为这样说不礼貌。西方人清晨碰见习惯互道“Goodmorning!”或者简单地招呼一声“Hi!”,“Hello!”倘若用汉语习惯用语的英译版“Haveyoueatenornot(吃了吗)?”或“Whereareyougoing(去哪儿)?”问候不大了解中国国情、风俗的西方人,他(她)可能会纳闷“难道我没有足够的钱吃饭吗?”或许误以为“你要请我吃饭”,“至于我去哪里,与你有何相干?你的鼻子怎么伸得这么长呢”,“去哪里?”本来是一句礼节性问候语,可有的外国朋友说不定会把礼节性的问候视为干涉其神圣不可侵犯的隐私的无礼行为。所以,问候语的内容或表面信息差异表明,在一种语言中被认为有礼貌的话在另一种语言中也许不一定有礼貌。
五、跨文化交际策略的培养
由于汉英语言的负面迁移和跨文化理解、交际障碍,在跨文化交际中一定要综合考虑语言语用和背后深层的文化差异,选择恰当的跨文化交际策略。因此为了达到交际目的,中国的英语教师必须教学生如何提高跨文化交际的能力,在与英语文化的人士交往问候时,应视具体情况做相应的文化信息转换,改用英语日常问候用语,而且,中外人士互相了解彼此的风俗习惯很有必要,只有这样才能使交往得以继续。
——On Sister Carrie
Carrie was such an ordinary rural girl at the beginning of the story. Sitting on the seat of a bus, she couldn’t help feeling exciting at the sight of the metropolis’ spectacle. She was impressed deeply by large crowd on the avenue, the spacious square or tall buildings.
Far more different from other heroines, Carrie was not a plain pure angel like Snow-white, nor was she brave enough to be a heroine of revolutionist or even a reformer, nor was she so clever as to be a successful career woman who start from scratch.
What attracted her most, after her entering this huge metropolis was the incredible fineries, fashion shoes, smart handbags displaying in the shop windows, the jewellerys shining brightly behind the glass. She dreamed that one day, she could wear all of these, jogging gracefully into the most luxurious hotel with focused sights of admiration.
And this was not merely a dream. Because she had large eyes which can earn others’ sympathy, even love. She had wonderful figure which can win others’ hearts. However, anything she got, anywhere she reached, had not come from her ambition. Things happened, and then she accepted. That’s what she had just done — just to accept willingly from the bottom of her heart. She was not at all an evil woman who would give anything for the fortune or fame. However, she would give uo something for a better life when her instinct defeated her intellect.
That was Carrie, a girl had her own desire, a human being just like many others in the realistic world.
There’s one sentence written in chapter VIII:” When this jangle of free-will instinct shall have been adjusted, when perfect understanding has given the former the power to replace the latter entirely, man will no longer vary.” However, how many people can go that further.
《 Notre Dame cathedral》 is one known far and wide romantic faction strength which Victor Hugo writes . I take advantage of this summer vacation free time, read this great work.
Notre Dame cathedral's story, actually was one at that time social epic poem, since brimmed with really. Friendly. Beautiful, also the flow selfish desire and is false. Regardless of is good beautiful Asmelada ,or has the ugly semblance, Cacimodo with one pure mind, they represent the great amount the lower level populace which suppresses; Perhaps is sinister Coloud, he is appears by the theocracy face, all load bearing one kind of author's ponder.The author in this work, for with the clown, was beautifully friendly and wickedly does the best annotation, or take above three people as the example, the rebel Asmelada has the beautiful semblance and the chaste good mind, as well as pitiful destiny, but Cacimodo, he withstood destiny deceive nicely, the innermost feelings is his misery is graver, but Coloud maintained the benighted social rights and interests, he had brutally. Void mind and evil passion. Good person physique hateful, but the evil person actually says the appearance shore however, bright set off, social unfair manifest.
But the article result also is when the opposition society until criticism: All beautiful is good all swallows by the might and the evil, the lower level people's weak strength in under the king power rule, in the benighted society, only can be reduced to ashes. Was palatial Notre Dame cathedral, how many world tragedy testimony once, in Hugo the novel, he as if had the life breath, he sheltered Asmelada ,exposed Coloud the crime, regret the populace attack the magnificent feat which dark actually heroically devoted……
Another the question which is worth pondering is: Who is the hero? Asmelada or Cacimodo? I think all is not, but is in the article by the Louis 11 rank smell of blood suppression rather for sacreficed the populace gate, Asmelada with Cacimodo is not in them the representative, Asmelada is loves with the beautiful symbol, Cacimodo not many represents is unfortunate and the pain. But they, all suffer a tragic middle ages ignorant evil forces devastate, one each one painful soul is bleeding, flows the tear. Merely is Notre Dame cathedral's above engraves " the destiny "? They are in middle ages France, despotism sacrificial victim.
The entire story rich tragic color, the plot intense is moving, exciting. Author Hugo through " Notre Dame cathedral " this story, but also disclosed at that time the dark society's essence to the people. This fascinating story likes that Ccimodo clocks sound equally shocks several generation of readers' minds.
In my opinion, it is impossible for every rich girl to act like a well-behaved princess, but Sara, the heroine of the novel, did it! She was an imaginative little girl who had such intelligent small face and such perfect manners. Sara was a very nice girl who had a gentle, appreciative ways of saying, such as “If you please” “Thank you” which was very charming. So, not only her teachers and classmates liked her, but also her servants liked her. There was a time when Sara became a poor and pitiful servant insulted by the snobbish headmaster of the school. In spite of this, she had never complained to anyone about the horrible suffering she had endured. Sara was confident, brave, optimistic and kind-hearted just like before and she had never given up her enthusiasm of life. No matter when, Sara acted like a princess, and on account of this, she had accomplished a GREat deal of miracles over and over again.
After reading this outstanding book, I was shocked by Sara, a little girl who suffered such unimaginable pain and tortures, but still had an opposite attitude towards life. What impresses me most is that Sara put on her act of being a princess when she wore thin bottom shoes, wading in the street of London. From my point of view, her spirit of being so strong-minded when she was in hard times is worth admiring.
Truly, every girl is a princess coming into common life. the “princess” I mean is not a princess living in the palace and being regarded as the apple of everyone’s eye. As the matter of fact, the “princess” is at heart. I am in the belief that every ordinary girl in the world can be a princess. The way for a girl to be a princess is quite simple. Just suppose! You can suppose yourself to be a princess, and go about your business confidently without caring how the others would treat you. If you want to have more resemblance to a princess, be more kind and try your best to help the people in need. The most important thing you are supposed to do is that to feel like a real princess at any occasion, particularly when you are involved with enormous melancholy. Do not feel the conditions you faced are extremely wretched and attempt to get rid of the feeling of hopelessness and uneasiness. The less you look like a princess, the more you need to feel like a princess at heart.
在这次劳累而又难忘的英语节当中,我体会到了许多。
在英语课上的各种活动中,我感受到我们缺乏太多团结。一个活动中,是要“两人三足”的形式来拿东西的。这个形式,需要的就是配合,才能往返的快。可有些同学是连拖带拽的把另一个同学拉到终点再给他拽回来。这就说明我们不够团结一致。在跳蚤市场中,我发现我们的经商不是很强。有的东西太贵,没人买;有的东西太便宜,亏成本。在别人的铺子里,经常看到一些抢着买的人群。这是因为别人的价格恰到好处,有时还有赠品,别人看的上。由此可见我们的经商还是比别人差了那么一点。在寻宝活动中,我发现我们的词汇量太少,一些句子当中的单词我们根本见都没见过,可见还要多锻炼。还有一个小活动叫“连词成句”。我原本以为这些句子都会很简单的,加上我和赵君安的才华,一定能写出来。结果到我们的时候,我们拿到纸条,顿时傻了。我们竟然不会拼!无奈之下,纸条上怎么写我们就么写给它写下来。在这件事的从中我感受到了我的英语还缺乏应用,一个简单的“连词成句”给我就把我给难倒了,不过这会让我更加努力的学习英语。
在这次英语节中,我感受到了大家充分的热情和不来的经济头脑。部分收成不错,但还要继续磨练我们的英语水平。
在今天的英语课上,章老师上好新课后,就给我们听写、拼读英语单词。
章老师先后报了门、教室、学校、老师、学生、床、房间等单词让我们听写。这些单词中有的比较简单,我一下子就能听写出来,有些我只有一点点会拼,对那些难的,我只能听着发呆。我想,这个章老师真是气人,早不来,晚不来,偏偏在我还来不及复习时来个突然袭击。弄得我只有干坐的份。再望望其它同学,情况也同我差不多。只有我们的英语课代表蒋芳舒全拼出来了。
下课后我们围在蒋芳舒的身边向她讨教学习方法。她告诉我们,对复杂的英语单词,可以采取分开记,也可以多看报,有些内容,报纸上都有的。她边说边拿出报纸翻给我们看,并要我们在课外多看看有关这方面的书报。
啊,看报对英语也有这么多好处,我以前真是太小看它了。我想:以后多看书报也应例入复习计划中。
This is our house.It`s nice and big!It`s a warm world. All family are live in it. Ha!This is my parents`room.It`s big.My father is sit on the this chair.My mother is sleep on this bed. This is my room.It`s big,too.It`s name`s "Ann park" beacause it`s very lovely and interisting.This is my desk.Everyday I do homework here.This is my bed.It`s pink beacause pink is my favourite couler. This is our sitting room.It`s tidy.It has a table,four chairs,a TV,a mat and a flower.We often sing songs here and watch TV here. This is our book room.It`s big but small than the sitting room.It has many many wonderful books.We are read books and newspapers here. This is our bathroom .It`s big.We take baths,wash faces and brush teeth here.
Our house!Our warm world!I love U!
译文
If I were a mayor, I will create the Harbin to be more beautiful, but also expand the Harbin, let farmers in the country home children also came to Harbin, school a better place to Harbin.
If I were a scientist, I invented a kind of batteries will be able to start the car, will not let the air pollution, I would invent a kind of chocolate flavor of plastic bags, people and animals can eat, so eat small animals and children even when they also won't have anything.
If I were a singer, I would stand in all kinds of party, wearing a beautiful dress, use my voice to make people comfortable mood.
If I were a designer, I design a few beautiful clothes in the world, and open a dress, skirt. Let people to see. If you want to buy, I will lower the price!
If I were a draw, I'll give people draw self-portrait, free to open a painting exhibition, visitors will also give a leaf stickers!
Ten years later, I no matter be what kind of person, I will make a useful to the people, to make our country a better place.
十年后的我会怎么样呢?下面,我来想象一下。
假如我是市长,我会把哈尔滨创造得更加美丽,还要把哈尔滨扩大,让乡下的农民家的孩子也来到哈尔滨上学,让哈尔滨变得更加美好。
假如我是科学家,我发明一种用电池就能开动的小汽车,不会让空气污染,我还会发明一种巧克力味的塑料袋,人和动物都可以吃,这样小动物和小朋友就算吃了也不会有什么事情。
假如我是一名歌唱家,我会站在各种晚会,穿着漂亮的晚礼服,用我的歌声来让人们心情舒适。
假如我是设计师,我会设计出几个世界上漂亮的衣服,开一个衣服、裙子展。让人们来观赏。如果要买的话,我会减价哦!