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【关键词】举例 复合句 where 系统比较 首先我们对定语从句的组成要素进行一个简单的剖析,定语从句有四个要素组成:主句,从句,先行词和关系词。而关系词又分为关系代词(which, that, who, whom等)和关系副词(where,when, why等)。如句(1)中,The place is changing a lot 是主句,而which后面的句I visited last year是从句,which是关系代词,the place 是先行词。组成定语从句的这四个要素缺一不可,有时候如果关系代词在从句中做宾语时可以省略,比如在句(1)中,which可以省略,因为which在这里做的visit的宾语。
(1)The place which I visited last year is changing a lot.
(2)The place where I lived before is changing a lot.
在where引导的宾语从句中,和关系代词的比较和运用也是一个重点和难点,比如在句(2)中,关系词用的是where,而不能用关系代词which或that,这是因为在句(2)中,从句I lived before不缺宾语,因此只能用关系副词来引导。因此可以总结到,在定语从句中,如果先行词是表示地点的名次,而从句中不缺主语或宾语时,要用where引导,有事可以用“介词+which”来引导,比如句(2)中where可以用in which来代替。
二、Where在名词从句中的运用及比较
名词从句的功能相当于名词,根据它在句中语法功能,名词从句主要分为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。与定语从句不同,名词从句的组成要素只有三个:主句,从句和连接词。而连接词可分为连接代词(一般有what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whomever等)和连接副词(when, whenever, where, wherever等)以及在句子不做成分的连接词(that, if和whether)。如句(3)、句(4)和句(5):
(3)I don’t know what you want.
(4)I don’t know where I should go now.
(5)I don’t know whether he will come here or not.
从上面的三个句子我们可以得知,what等连接代词在引导名词从句时,主句和从句都缺成分(主语或宾语),如句(3)中主句缺宾语,从句也缺宾语,因此这类连接代词一般在名词从句中不仅起到连接主从句的作用,还在从句中做主语或宾语。而where等连接副词在引导名词从句时,一般情况从句不缺成分(主语和宾语),只在从句中做状语成分,如句(4)中,从句就不缺主语和宾语。Whether, if 和that 这三个词在名词从句只起到连接主从句的作用,在主从句中不做任何成分。
下面的四个例子具体说明了where在名词从句中的运用。在句(6)where引导是主语从句,在句(7)中where引导的是宾语从句,在句(8)中where引导的是同位语从句,在句(9)中,where引导的是表语从句。
(6)Where the books will sell depends on the market
(7)We should decide now where we will go for the holiday.
(8)I have no idea where we will go.
(9)This place is where I lived before.
三、Where在状语从句中的运用及比较
Where一般引导时间状语从句,我们经常说的一句谚语“where there is a will, there is a way”就是where引导的一个典型的时间状语从句。下面的例子具体说明了where在时间从句中的运用:
(10)He lived where there was a poor village.
(11)Everywhere she went, she was warmly welcomed.
从上面的例子可以看出在引导地点状语从句中,where一般表示一个确定的但非特指的地点,翻译成“在…的地方”,如句(10)可译成“他以前生活在一个比较穷的山村里。”;而anywhere 和everywhere 则表示强调,翻译成“任何地方”。如句(11)可译成“她所到之处,都受到热烈欢迎。”
四、Where引导定语从句与状语从句的区别
首先,句子结构上不同。Where引导定语从句时,where前面必然有表示地点的名词,即先行词,如句(2)中的where前面有先行词the place;而where引导的地点状语从句时,则它前面没有表示地点的名词,比如句(10)中where前面没有表示地点的名词,只有动词lived。
其次,Where在主从句中的作用不同。当where引导定语从句时,where是指代地点名词,在定语从句中作地点状语,修饰的是从句的谓语,如句(2)中where代指的是in the place,修饰的是lived。当where引导地点状语从句时,where在从句中不充当地点状语,Where所引导的地点状语从句修饰的是主句的谓语,充当的是主句谓语的地点状语成分。
再者,where引导地点状语从句时不能改写成“介词+which”的表达形式。在定语从句中,如果where前面的先行词是地点名词,一般可以改写成“介词+which”的形式。如句(2)中,可以将其中的where替换成in which即: The place in which I lived before is changing a lot.相比之下,地点状语从句中的where是不能替换为“介词+which”的。另外,在where引导的定语从句中,我们还可以用其他形式来代替,比如以下几个例子:
(12)The place in which I lived before is changing a lot.
(13)The place which I lived in before is changing a lot.
(14)The place that I lived in before is changing a lot.
(15)The place I lived in before is changing a lot.
一般情况下,在定语从句中,“介词+which”的表达形式多样,最常见的就是句(12)中的形式,但是如果把这种形式中的介词放在从句谓语动词的后面,可以有三种变体。第一种变体就是句(13)的用法,直接把介词放在从句谓语动词后面;第二种如句(14)可以把which 用that来代替;第三种就是句(15)的用法,可以把句(13)和(14)中的which和that省略,因为在这里which和that做的是介词in的宾语(在定语从句中,如果关系代词which和that在从句中做宾语,可以省略)。
参考文献:
【关键词】英汉状语语序 认知基础
【中图分类号】G642 【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】1006-9682(2012)06-0070-03
一、状语概述
1.状语的定义
在英语中修饰动词、形容词、副词或全句的句子成分叫做状语。在汉语中用在动词、形容词前边,用来修饰限制动词、形容词的句子成分叫做状语。从定义中我们看出,英语对状语的定义比汉语更为广泛,其修饰副词和全句的句子成分也是定语。
2.充当状语的成分
在英语中,状语由副词或相当于副词的其他词类、短语或从句来表示。汉语中状语由副词或相当于副词的其他词类、短语来表示。在英语中从句也可以充当状语,这是英汉不同之处。
3.状语的分类
英语中,状语分为时间状语、地点状语、方式状语、程度状语、度量状语、原因状语、目的状语、结果状语、条件状语和让步状语十种。汉语中,状语可分为时间状语、地点状语、方式状语、程度状语、原因状语、目的状语六种。从种类上看,英语的状语种类也比汉语多,因此,从以上对比看,以英语为母语的学习者学习汉语状语应该不是十分困难。但是状语在句子中的顺序在两种语言之间存在较大差异,这种在语序上的差异给学习者习得汉语造成很大困难。
4.状语语序
英语的状语在句子中的位置大至有三个:句首、句中和句尾;而汉语的状语位置一般在句首或句中。而且,两种语言的不同的状语在句子中的位置也不一致。本文通过对比英汉两种语言状语在句子中的位置,希望找到相通和差异之处,提高学习者习得汉语状语语序的效率。
二、英汉状语语序对比
1.单一状语的位置
单一词或短语作状语时,状语在句中的位置最复杂。汉语状语的位置不太固定,但大多位于主谓之间,常见的结构是:主语——状语——谓语——宾语。也有少数状语位于主语之前,作句首状语的情况。“当……时候”、“由于……”这类状语多置于句首。时间状语,“为了……”、“对于……”以及“刚才”、“忽然”
等少数副词可在句首,也可在句中。除此之外,其它状语很少能置于主语之前。
英语状语的位置更显复杂,除句首、句中之外,还有在句尾。其中以句尾最为常见,形成了典型英语句式“主语——谓语——宾语——状语”。
(1)时间状语的分布位置
汉语的时间状语一般都位于句首或句中。例如:
现在我们可以看到许多华人在美国成就卓然。(句首状语)
你现在怎么还不睡?(句中状语)
英语中时间状语可以置于句首、句中和句尾。例如:
But now I feel it’s very easy to get inside.(句首状语)
Career women now shop at couture.(句中状语)
“I removed them all”,the doctor declared.“we’ll close now”.(句尾状语)
(2)地点状语的分布位置
汉语的地点状语既可放在句中,又可放在句首;英语的地点状语只能位于句首或句尾。例如:
在北京电报局营业大厅内,每天前来办理入网手续和咨询网上业务的人络绎不绝。
一些资深喇嘛上周被迫参加在北京举行的讨论这个问题的会议。(句中状语)
Autumn is the best season in Beijing.(句尾状语)
(3)程度状语的分布位置
汉语的程度状语一般只处于句中;而英语的程度副词做状语可分布在句首、句中、句尾。例如:
人们盼望我们更好。(句中状语)
The other side of the picture is quite the opposite.(句中状语)
“I dislike it very much”,he replied.(句尾状语)
Nearly three weeks.(句首状语)
(4)频度状语的分布位置
汉语的频度状语一般处于句中,但有时也可将某些频度状语提到句首。例如:
我只是经常唱一句越南民歌:可怜我的家乡啊!
每天我走你门前过,都不敢进来,不是云霖告诉我说你不会生我气,那我今天还不敢来。
英语的频度副词状语可以分为两类:第一类包括often,always等所有表示频度的副词以及以这些副词为主体的短语多在句中,为加强语气也可以放在句首或句尾;第二类由now and then,once a week,every other day等短语构成,多在句末,为加强语气也可在句首。例如:
Do you always get up so late.(句中状语)
Always remember,your focus.(句首状语)
If you confer a benefit,never remember it;if you receive one,remember it always.(句末状语)
And have you heard from him often?(句末状语)
He comes here once a week.
The doctor comes to the hospital every other day.
2.多重状语的分布位置
(1)两个或两个以上的时间状语的分布位置
英语中如果有两个或两个以上的时间状语,那么表示较短时间的状语在前,表示较长时间的状语在后,这一点与汉语正好相反。例如:
I saw that film on Sunday evening last week.
我上个星期天晚上看的那个电影。
Meet him at the airport,at Gate 2,at 11:00 tomorrow morning.
在机场见他,在2号门,明天早上11点。
(2)两个或两个以上的地点状语的分布位置
如果英语句中有两个地点状语,一般是小地点在前,大地点在后,这一点正好与汉语相反。例如:
He lived at the west gate Shaoxing Zhejiang.
他住在浙江绍兴西门。
(3)时间状语和地点状语的分布位置
通常,英语的地点状语在前,时间状语在后,这一点正好与汉语相反。例如:
We will meet at the restaurant 8 o’clock.
我们八点在饭店见面。
(4)方式状语、地点状语和时间状语的分布位置
一般说来,英语的词序是:方式状语——地点状语——时间状语。
汉语主语后的描写性并列式多项状语用于平等地修饰中心语,除了受语义逻辑关系、结构平衡和表达习惯制约以外,一般没有主次之分,顺序比较灵活。
汉语递加式的多项状语比较复杂,彼此间虽无主次之分,但是必须按照一定层次关系对中心语进行修饰。其语序通常为:时间状语——方式状语——地点状语,或是:时间状语——地点状语——方式状语。例如:
She cuts the bottles carefully on the doorstep every day.
我们每天都小心地用刀在树根上砍了几下。
我经常在家里大声地读书。
(5)英语地点状语、频度状语和时间状语的分布位置
一般说来,其词序是:地点状语——频度状语——时间状语。而汉语是时间状语——频度状语——地点状语。(汉语语法一般将频度状语划入时间状语。[注1])例如:
He gave a lecture at the college every three days last term.
他上个学期每三天就会在大学里举行一次演讲。
3.状语从句的语序
英语状语从句与汉语句子的对应关系比较复杂,有些状语从句与汉语的复句相对应,而有些状语从句则与汉语的单句相对应。
(1)时间状语从句
英语的时间状语从句位于主句的前面或后面,在汉语中相应的时间状语是用陈述性短语表示的,它们通常位于句首或主谓之间。例如:
I’ll phone you when I get home from work.
我回家后就给你打电话。
Before I go, I’d like to visit the museum.
在我走之前,我想去看看博物馆。
(2)地点状语从句
英语的地点状语从句,一般位于主句的前面,有时也位于主句的后面。在汉语中,与此相对应的地点状语是陈述性短语表示的,它们通常位于句首或主谓之间。例如:
The castle stood where the two roads meet.
那座城堡曾位于这两条公路交汇的地方。
(3)原因状语从句
汉语的因果复句与英语原因状语句相对应,表示原因的偏句相当于英语的从句,往往在前;而表示结果的正句相当于英语的主句,则常常在后。例如:
We have to hurry up,because we are late.
因为我们迟了,我们得赶快。
汉语中,有时为了强调结果,也可将表示原因的偏句放在正句之后。
例如:氧气和氮气可以从其它物质中制取,但通常是从空气中制取的,因为空气极为丰富。
英语的原因状语从句位于主句之前或之后都可以。例如:
I do it because I like it.
Because I like it,I will do it.
由as,since,because,seeing that等连词引起的原因状语从句既可以位于主句之前,又可以位于主句之后。
例如:As it was a public holiday,all the shops were shut.
由now that,in so much等连词引起的原因状语从句,倾向于放在首位。
例如:In so much as you have confessed,I will not punish.
但也可以放在末位。
例如:This room looks lovely now that we’ve done it up.
(4)条件状语从句
汉语的条件复句中,表示条件的偏句一般只位于正句之前。
例如:如果你同意,我们明天一清早就出发。
只要我们刻苦训练,我们就一定能够拿到金牌。
英语的条件状语既可以在主句之前,也可居于主句之后。例如:
As long as we don’t lose heart,we’ll find a way to overcome the difficulty.
Send me a message in case you have any problems.
综上所述,状语的种类较多,分布位置较灵活,其在句中的位置常依据它的结构,看它是否只有一个副词,或是一个短语,或是从句;也看它所表示的意义是表示时间、地点、程度或是其它。此外,还看它是否需要强调或需要对比。这些因素都决定状语在句中的位置。
三、英汉状语语序异同认知基础分析
认知过程中的图形背景理论在一定程度上可以解释人对客观世界的反映和对语言的运用。在一个场景中,图形是相对其他部分来说的突出的下一级结构,作为关键部分被给予特别的突出,整个场景围绕它组织,并为它提供背景。而其中不突出的剩余部分即是背景。大量例子证明,英语是把信息的理解是从核心到边缘,从部分到整体的认知模式,即“图形背景模式”,先理解信息中最突出最重要的部分。因此,英语交际的原则是将最突出的信息放在最容易感知的信息之前。而汉语是把句子作为整体的模式,即“背景图形模式”,汉语中的修饰成分放在句子的前面,作为语境,核心信息在后。所以,汉语遵循的是从整体到部分,从边缘到核心的认知顺序。
综上所述,我们得知:正常语序情况下,英语单一状语、多重状语或状语从句多位于句尾。这符合我们上述分析,即英语先交代句子中的主要信息、核心信息——“图形”在句子前部,然后再交代句子的次要信息(时间、地点、方式等状语)——“背景”在句子尾部。汉语单一状语、多重状语多位于句首或主谓之间。汉语要给出句子的次要信息——“背景”信息,然后才是整个句子的核心内容——“图形”。
注 释
1 黄伯荣、廖序东.现代汉语(增订四版)(下)[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2006
2 本文中的英文例句出自:厦门大学卢伟老师的英汉双语平行语料库和中文语料库:省略/ec-corpus/ index.htm
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15 张立玉.英汉语序对比分析[J].中南民族大学学报,2002
先行词表示时间或地点时,如果在从句中作状语应由when或where引导定语从句。但是如果表示时间或地点的先行词在从句中不作状语而作主语或宾语就只能由which或that而不能由when或where引导定语从句。从这个角度命题增加了考生识别先行词的性质及在从句中的语法功能的能力。
【例1】That evening, I will tell you more about later, I ended up working very late.
A. that B. which
C. what D. when
解析:这里that evening是先行词,其在定语从句中作介词about的宾语,所以用which。句意:以后我将和你谈起的那个晚上,我工作到了很晚。答案为B。
二、设计整个主句作先行词
先行词多为单个的名词、代词或名词短语,但有时也引用整个主句作先行词,此时用which或as引导定语从句。As引导定语从句时表示“正如”之意。设计整个主句作先行词时先行词的识别难度增大。
【例2】It is the third time that she has won the race, has surprised us all.
A. that B. where
C. which D. what
解析:所填词前有逗号,是非限制性定语从句,先行词是整个主句,关系词在从句中作主语。其余选项与题干不符,故答案为C。
三、设计将先行词置身于其他性质的名词中
如果从句前只有充当先行词的单一名词,其性质和功能之别的难度不大,但如果在充当先行词的名词前后加一些性质不同的名词,先行词及其功能的识别难度也将增大。
【例3】She has a gift for creating an atmosphere for her students allows them to communicate freely with each other.
A. which B. where C. what D. who
解析:分析句子成分可知, an atmosphere与修饰它的定语从句被for her students隔开,该从句缺少主语,所以用which。
四、设计看起来不像时间或地点却在从句中作时间状语或地点状语的先行词
高考英语单项填空题中常设计的先行词在从句中充当时间状语或地点状语,而先行词看起来却不像时间或地点之类的词,这样就增加了考生识别先行词的难度。
【例4】Sales director is a position communication ability is just as important as sales.
A. which B. that
C. when D. where
解析:position为先行词,后面是其定语从句,关系词在从句中作的是地点状语。因此,应该使用关系副词where来引导定语从句,表示在这个职位上。
五、设计用主句谓语动词把定语从句与先行词隔开
定语从句多放在先行词的后面,如果设计将主句谓语动词提前,这样先行词辨别的难度就会加大。
【例5】After the flooding, people were suffering in that area, urgently needed clean water, medicine and shelter to survive.
A. which B. who
C. where D. what
解析:people是先行词而不是area是先行词,在非限制性定语从句中充当主语指人,所以用关系代词who引导。
六、设计定语从句和插入语混合使用中的先行词
在定语从句中使用一个插入短语,使句子表达更加灵活。这样的设计增加了考生识别先行词和先行词在从句中充当句法功能的难度。
【例6】 Ellen was a painter of birds and of nature, , for some reason, had withdrawn from all human society.
A. which B. who
C. where D. whom
解析:Ellen是先行词,在从句中作主语。由于受插入语for some reason的影响,增加了考生判断先行词在从句中充当句法功能的难度。who是引导非限定性定语从句且在从句中作主语,修饰先行词Ellen。Which修行先行词是物的定语从句;whom修饰先行词为人,且在从句中作宾语;where修饰先行词是地点名词,且在从句中作地点状语,均不符合语境,故排除。答案为B。
七、设计“介词+whom/ which”引导定语从句中与介词搭配的先行词
当关系代词在定语从句中充当介词的宾语时,我们用介词+关系代词(whom或which)引导定语从句。该类定语从句题的难点是怎样选择介词,而介词的确定是根据先行词与介词的搭配习惯来确定的。所以解决该类题型的重点是识别定语从句的先行词。
【例7】Care of the soul is a gradual process even the small details of life should be considered.
A. what B. in what
C. which D. in which
解析:心灵的护理是一个逐渐的过程,在这个过程中,甚至生活中那些微小的细节都应该加以考虑。分析句子成分后可知,介词in与先行词process搭配,定语从句“ even the small details of life should be considered”中缺少地点状语,故用where或者in which引导,即D项正确。
八、设计定语从句和强调句型混用的先行词
强调句型“It is (was) +被强调部分+that (who) +句子的其余部分”结构中被强调部分是一个句子中充当主语、宾语或状语的名词或代词,而定语从句中的先行词也是名词或代词。考生在解决该类题时必须先确定名词或代词是强调句型中的被强调部分还是定语从中的先行词,这样增加了考生辨别定语从句中先行词的难度。
【例8】——Have you seem the film Under the Hawthorn Tree?
——Of course, I have. It was in our village
it was made.
A. that B. where
C. when D. which
解析:问话人询问对方是否看过《山楂树之恋》这部电影,答话人回答说当然看过,这部电影是在自己的村庄拍摄的。本句是强调句,被强调的部分是地点状语in our village。部分考生误认为该句是定语从句,误把“village”当做先行词且在从句中从当地点状语,容易误选B。答案实则为A。
【例9】——Where did you get to know her?
——It was on the farm we worked.
A. that B. there
C. which D. where
解析:句意:——你在哪儿认识她的?——在我们工作的农场。一些考生误认为on the farm是强调句型中的被强调部分,会误选A项。实际上,本句是强调句型的省略形式,省略了that及句子的其他成分,在被强调部分中的名词farm后有一个定语从句,farm是先行词。补充完整后该句应为:It was on the farm where we worked that I got to know her. 所以正确答案是D项。因此在对话题中,我们应该多考虑一下强调句型与定语从句混合使用的情况。
九、设计定语从句与复合句混合使用中的先行词
复合句是由一个主句和一个或一个以上的从句构成。主句是全句的主体,往往可以独立存在;而从句仅是句子的一个成分,故不能独立存在,必须有一个关联词引导,通常用逗号与主句隔开,放在主句的前面或后面。高考试题中常设计把主从复合句作为先行词,定语从句放在主从复合句的中间,把主从复合句的主句和从句隔开,从而增加了考生辨别主从句作先行词的难度。
【例10】When deeply absorbed in work, he often was,he would forget all about eating or sleeping.
A. that B. which
C. where D. when
解析:在题干中,“______ he often was”为非限制性定语从句,先行词为整个主从复合句“When deeply absorbed in work, he would forget all about eating or sleeping.”关系词在从句中作表语。由此结合选项可知,B选项符合题意。A选项不引导非限制性定语从句,可排除;而C和D选项引导定语从句时,在从句中作状语,不合题意,也可排除。
十、设计把非限制性定语从句插入主句中的先行词
非限制性定语从句通常用逗号与主句隔开放在句首、句中或句末。但如果设计主句为先行词,并且把非限制性定语从句插入主句中,就增加了考生辨别先行词的难度。
【例11】The air quality in the city, is shown in the report, has improved over the past two months.
A. that B. it
C. as D. what
解析:本句的先行词是“The air quality in the city, has improved over the past two months.”把定语从句分割出来放在句首就很明了了,把句子转换成 is shown in the report, the air quality in the city has improved over the past two months.就能直接看到非限制性定语从句引导词放句首指的是下文所提到的一句话用as引导“正如所写的那样”。答案为C。
【小试身手】
1. By 16:30, was almost closing time, nearly all the paintings had been sold.
A. which B. when
C. what D. that
2. A lot of language learning, has been discovered, is happening in the first year of life, so parents should talk much to their children during that period.
A. as B. it
C. which D. this
3. Maria has written two novels, both of have been made into television series.
A. them B. that
C. which D. what
4. In our class there are 46 students, half wear glasses.
A. in whom B. in them
C. of whom D. of them
5. I wish to thank Professor Smith, without help I would never have got this far.
A. who B. whose
C. whom D. which
6. 100℃ is the temperature which water will boil.
A. for B. at
C. on D. of
7. It was from only a few supplies that she had bought in the village the hostess cooked such a nice dinner.
A. where B. that
C. when D. which
8. John’s success has nothing to do with good luck. It is years of hard work has made him what he is today.
A. why B. when
C. which D. that
9. Ted came for the weekend wearing only some shorts and a T-shirt, is a stupid thing to do in such weather.
A. this B. that
C. what D. which
10. Mary was much kinder to Jack than she was to the others, , of course, make all the others upset.
A. who B. which
C. what D. that
考点说明 关系副词when,where,why引导定语从句时,分别表示时间、地点和原因。但并不是在所有的时间名词后就一定用关系副词when,在地点名词后就一定用关系副词where,在表示原因的名词后就一定用关系副词why引导定语从句,关键要看从句中缺少什么成分。
例1 I don’t know the reason ______ the housing prices go up so wildly.
A.why B.that C.where D.when
解析 选A。此句中的先行词是the reason,定语从句是the housing prices go up so wildly,这个句子是完整的,缺少原因状语for the reason,所以选择关系副词why来代替它。
例2 In a sports team each player has a clear role,and there are few occasions ______ members are confused or uncertain of their roles.
A.which B.that C.when D.how
解析 选C。此句中的先行词是few occasions,定语从句是members are confused or uncertain of their roles,缺少状语on few occasions,所以选择关系副词when引导此定语从句。
例3 China’s new food law provides for a food recall system ______ producers have to stop production if their food isn’t up to standards.
A. where B. that C. when D. which
解析 选A。此句中的先行词是a food recall system,定语从句是producers have to stop production if their food isn’t up to standards,缺少状语in the system,所以选择关系副词where引导此定语从句。
例4 Can you guess the year ______ my mother and my father got married?
A. which B. that C. when D. on which
解析 选C。此句中的先行词是the year,定语从句是my mother and my father got married,缺少时间状语in the year,所以选择关系副词when引导此定语从句。
二、关系副词引导的定语从句,可以改写为“介词+which”引导的定语从句
考点说明 由于关系副词在定语从句中相当于“介词+名词”,如: when相当于on / in / during the day,where相当于in / at the place,why相当于for the reason。
注意:在“介词+ which ”结构中,介词的选择取决于 which 所指的名词与介词的搭配关系,或者取决于定语从句中动词词组与介词的搭配关系。
例5 The National Education Department says school safety has set off alarm bells with frequent serious accidents ______ students got injured or even killed.
A. that B. in which C. by which D.when
解析 选B。此句中的先行词是accidents,定语从句是students got injured or even killed,缺少状语in the accidents,所以选择in which来取代关系副词where引导此定语从句。
例6 China has hundreds of islands, ______ the largest is Taiwan.
A. in which B. to which
C. from which D. of which
解析 选D。此句中的先行词是islands,定语从句是the largest is Taiwan,缺少状语of the islands,意为“在这些岛当中,最大的岛是台湾”,所以选择of which来引导此定语从句。
例7 A good ad often uses words ______ people attach positive meanings.
A. in which B. to which C. which D. that
解析 选B。此句中的先行词是words, 完整的定语从句是people attach positive meanings to the words,缺少状语to the words。从句意为“人们赋予这些单词积极的意义”,所以选择to which来引导此定语从句。
例8 I saw a woman running toward me in the dark. Before I could recognize who she was,she had run back in the direction ______ she had come.
A. of which B. by which
C. in which D. from which
解析 选D。此句中的先行词是direction,定语从句是she had come,缺少状语from the direction,所以选择from which来引导此定语从句。
例9 Mark was a student at this university from 2006 to 2010, ______ he studied very hard and was made Chairman of the Students’ Union.
A. during which time B. for which time
C. during whose time D. by that time
解析 选A。此句中的先行词是from 2006 to 2010,定语从句是he studied very hard and was made Chairman of the Students’ Union,缺少状语during the time,所以选择during which time来引导此定语从句。
三、考查对先行词表示地点性质的判断
考点说明 当situation,case,point,activity等作先行词时,其后常用where引导定语从句。这些先行词看起来并不表示地点,容易被误看成事物,而使用that或which来引导定语从句。
例10 I’ve come to the point ______ I can’t stand her arguing any longer.
A. what B. where C. which D. that
解析 选B。此句中的先行词是the point,定语从句是I can’t stand her arguing any longer。句意为:我已经到了再也无法忍受她辩解的地步了。point相当于一个点,所以选择where来引导此定语从句。
例11 Mary,would you like to help me to think out a situation ______ these phrases can be used at the same time?
A. which B. that C. as D. where
解析 选D。此句中的先行词是a situation,定语从句是these phrases can be used at the same time,缺少状语in a situation,所以选择where来引导此定语从句。
例12 Can you think of some cases ______ drivers obviously knew the traffic rules but didn’t obey them?
A.why B.where C.as D.which
解析 选B。此句中的先行词是some cases,定语从句是drivers obviously knew the traffic rules but didn’t obey them,缺少状语in some cases,所以选择where来引导此定语从句。
例13 While public speaking focuses on an individual,debate is an activity ______ two or more speakers present their opinions in support and against a given issue.
用来修饰主句中的动词,副词和形容词的从句叫状语从句。根据其含义状语从句可分为时间状语从句,地点状语从句,条件状语从句, 原因状语从句,结果状语从句,比较状语从句,目的状语从句,让步状语从句。
1. 时间状语从句
(1)时间状语从句常用when, as, while, before, after, since, till, until, as soon as等连词来引导。例如:
It was raining hard when got to school yesterday.
While he was doing his homework,the telephone rang.
As he walked along the lake, he sang happily.
He had learned a little Chinese before he came to China.
After he finished middle school, he went to work in a factory.
(2) 在时间状语从句里,通常不用将来时态,用现在时态表示将来的动作或状态。例如:
I’ll ring you up as soon as I get to New York.
I will tell him everything when he comes back.
He won’t believe it until he sees it with his own eyes.
(3) 在带有till或until引导的时间状语从句的主从复合句里,如果主句用肯定式,其含义是“一直到……时”,谓语动词只能用延续性动词。如果主句用否定式,其含义是“直到……才……”, “在……以前不……”, 谓语动词可用瞬间动词。例如:
The young man read till the light went out.
Let’s wait until the rain stops.
We won’t start until Bob comes.
Don’t get off until the bus stops.
2. 条件状语从句
(1) 条件状语从句通常由if, unless引导。例如:
What shall we do if it snows tomorrow?
Don’t leave the building unless I tell you to.
(2) 在条件状语从句里,谓语动词通常用现在时态表示将来的动作或状态。例如:
I’ll help you with your English if am free tomorrow.
He won’t be late unless he is ill.
(3) “祈使句+ and (or)+ 陈述句” 在意思上相当于一个带有条件状语从句的复合句。例如:
Hurry up,or you’ll be late.
=If you don’t hurry up, you’ll be late.
Study hard and you will pass the exam.
=If you study hard, you will pass the exam.
3. 原因状语从句
(1)原因状语从句通常由because, since, as引导。例如:
He didn’t come to school because he was ill.
As it is raining, we shall not go to the zoo.
Since you can’t answer the question, I’ll ask someone else.
(2) because表示直接原因,语气最强。Because引导的原因状语从句多放在主句之后。回答由why提出的问题,只能用because。As和since语气较弱,一般用来表示明显的原因。由as和since引导的原因状语从居多放在句首。例如:
―Why aren’t going there?
―Because I don’t want to.
As he has no car, he can’t get there easily.
Since we have no money, we can’t buy it.
(3) because和so不能同用在一个句子里。
4. 结果状语从句
(1)结果状语从句由so状语从句是中考词汇和句法部分考查的重点内容之一。在复习状语从句时,主要任务是弄清楚引导各种状语从句的连词的用法。现就主要考查点简述如下:that, such...that, so that引导。例如:
He is so poor that he can’t buy a bike for his son.
She is such a good teacher that everybody likes her.
My pencil fell under the desk, so that I couldn’t see it.
(2) so...that语such...that可以互换。例如:
在由so...that引导的结果状语从句中,so是副词,与形容词/副词连用。其结构是: “...so +形容词/副词+ that + 从句”。例如:
He was so glad that he couldn’t say a word.
The hall is so big that it can hold 2,000 people.
Mother lives so far away that we hardly ever see her.
在由such...that引导的结果状语从句中,such是形容词,它修饰的可以是单数或复数可数名词,也可以是不可数名词;名词前面可以带形容词,也可不带。如果是单数可数名词,前面需加不定冠词a或an。例如:
It was such a hot day that nobody wanted to do anything.
He had such long arms that he could almost touch the ceiling.
He made such rapid progress that he did very well in the mid-term.
有时上述两种结构是可以互换的。例如:
It was such a wonderful film that all of us wanted to see it again.
=The film was so wonderful that all of us wanted to see it again.
It is such an important match that nobody wants to miss it.
=The match is so important that nobody wants to miss it.
(3)如果名词前由many/much(多), little/few(少),等词修饰时,只能用so, 不用such。例如:
Soon there were so many deer that they ate up all the wild roses.
He has so little time that he can’t go to the cinema with you.
注意:little译为“小”时用such,译为“少”时用so
5. 比较状语从句
比较状语从句通常由as...as, 比较级+ than...等连词引导。例如:
Tom runs faster than John does.
This classroom is as big as that one.
6. 目的状语从句
(1)目的状语从句通常由so that, in order that引导。例如:
We started early so that we could catch the first train.
He studies hard so that he could work better in the future.
We used the computer in order that we might save time.
(2) so that既可引导目的状语从句,又可引导结果状语从句。区别这两种从句的办法有两个:1)目的状语从句里往往带有情态动词can, could, may, might等。2)从意思上看,目的状语从句往往表示的目的很明确。例如:
Speak clearly so that they may understand you. (目的状语从句)
Jack is badly ill so that he has to rest.(结果状语从句)
7. 让步状语从句
(1) 让步状语从句通常由although, though等连词引导。例如:
Though he is young, he knows a lot.
Although I am tired, I must go on working.
(2) although(though)不能用在同一个句子中。例如:
我们不能说:Though it was raining hard, but he still went out.
应该说:Though it was raining hard, he still went out.或It was raining hard, but he still went out.
8. 地点状语从句
地点状语从句常常由where来引导。例如:
Go where you like.
Where there is a will, there is a way.
实例解析
1. You will stay healthy you do more exercise, such as running and walking.
A. if B. how
C. before D. where
答案:A。该题考查的是引导状语从句的从属连词的选择。从意思上看,从句应是一个条件状语从句,在这四个选项中只有if能引导条件状语从句,所以选A。
2. ―Shall we go on working?
―Yes, I prefer to have a rest.
A. when B. if
C. because D. though
答案:D。该题考查的是引导状语从句的从属连词的选择。从意思上看,只有选though才能说得通。
3. None of us knew what had happened
they told us about it.
A. when B. until
C. after D. though
答案:B。该题考查的是引导状语从句的从属连词选择。本句的意思是“在……以前我们没人知道这件事。”要表达着一意思应用“not...until” 这一句型。
4. ―I hope you’ll enjoy your trip, dear!
―Thank you, mum. I’ll give you a callI get there.
A. until B. as soon as
C. since D. till
答案:B。该题考查的是引导状语从句的从属连词的选择。本题的意思是“一到那里,我就给你打电话。”要表达这个意思应选用as soon as。
2010年中考真题练习
1. Peter likes reading a newspaper he is having breakfast. (2010河北省卷)
A. until B. while
C. because D. though
2. Many students didn’t realize the importance of study they left school.(2010江苏省盐城市)
A. when B. until
C. as D. after
3. Scientists say it may be a few years
it is possible to test the new medicine on patients. (2010江苏省无锡市)
A. because B. after
C. before D. since
4. ―May I go to the concert with you?(2010贵州省铜仁市)?
―I’m afraid not you have a ticket, because I have only one.
A. since B. if
C. unless D. though
5. it’s difficult to make her dream come true,she never gives up.(2010河南省)
A. Though B. Unless
C. Because D. If
6. Usually, we don’t know how important something is we lose it.(2010黑龙江省鸡西市)
A. or B. until C. as soon as
7. Mr. Brown knew nothing about the good news
his wife told it to him.
A. before B. after
C. since D. if
8. A tourist will easily lose his way in Beijing
he has a map or a guide.(2010江苏镇江市)
A. if B. because
C. unless D. when
9. it snowed heavily yesterday, nobody in our class missed the lesson.(2010辽宁省沈阳市)
A. Though B. Because
C. Unless D. Since
10. In summer, food goes bad easily
it is put in the refrigerator.(2010山西省)
三、 考查whose的用法
关系代词whose在定语从句中主要用作定语,表示它所修饰的名词与先行词之间为所属关系。如:
There are some students whose questions I can?蒺t answer. 有些学生提出的问题我回答不了。
I?蒺d like a room whose window looks out over the sea. 我想要一个窗户面向大海的房间。
值得注意的是,whose既可指人,也可指物,不要误以为它只用于指人。请看一道真题实例:
―There are so many girls over there. Which one is your sister?
―The one hat is yellow. (2012湖北随州)
A. who B. whose C. that D. which
分析:B。由于空格处所填的关系代词用作定语修饰hat,故选B。“The one whose hat is yellow.”的意思是“戴黄色帽子的那个(是我的妹妹)”。
四、 考查关系副词的用法
用于引导定语从句的关系副词有三个,即when, where, why,它们分别表示时间、地点和原因,且它们在定语从句中分别用作时间状语、地点状语和原因状语。但是从近几年的中考英语试题来看,这类考题涉及得比较少。如:
This is the primary school I studied three years ago. (2012四川宜宾)
A. where B. when C. that D. which
分析:A。由于受定语从句修饰的名词the primary school(小学)表示地点,所以定语从句用where来引导(同时where在定语从句中用作地点状语)。句意为:这就是我三年前就读的小学。
但是,值得注意的是,不要一看到先行词是表示时间、地点或原因,就以为引导定语从句的一定是关系副词,有时还得要分析关系词在定语从句中是用作状语(用关系副词)还是主语或宾语(用关系代词)。请看两道真题实例:
1. There will be a flower show in the park we visited last week. (2012广东)
A. who B. where C. what D. which
【答案】 D。虽然先行词park(公园)表示“地点”,但此空格处不能填where,因为关系词在定语从句中不是用作状语,而是用作宾语(作动词visited的宾语),故此题的答案是D,而不是B。
2. I still remember the time we spent together at Xisai Mountain last year. (2012 湖北黄石)
A. when B. what C. who D. which
【答案】 D。尽管先行词time表示“时间”,但此空格处不能填when,因为关系词在定语从句中不是用作状语,而是用作宾语(作动词spent的宾语),故此题的答案是D,而不是A。
五、 综合考查关系代词和其他知识
有时命题者会将引导定语从句的关系词与其他知识综合在一起进行考查。这类试题难度很大,因此在中考试题中出现得不多。请看两个实例:
1.―Do you enjoy My heart will go on?
―No, I prefer songs loud. (2012四川达州)
A. that is B. which is C. that are D. what are
分析:C。由于先行词songs指物,所以引导定语从句的关系代词可用that或which,但A、B、C均符合此要求,而不同的是,它们后面所接的谓语动词不同。那么到底该用is还是are呢?同学们此时就要注意先行词是单数还是复数了。对于此题而言,由于先行词songs是复数,所以其后定语从句的谓语也要用复数,故选C。
2. We all like the story about the teacher happened in our school last week. (2012湖北咸宁)
A. which B. who C. whom D. what
分析:A。初看一眼,同学们很可能认为此题的答案是B,因为定语从句的先行词好像是teacher啊!但是错了,因为teacher(老师)不能happened(发生),而只有story(故事)才能happened(发生),所以真正的先行词是story而不是teacher,由于命题者用about the about将定语从句与先行词分开,导致许多学生误选了B。
【边学边练】
1. I can never forget the stories my grandma told me.
A. what B. who C. them D. that
2. Please pass me the cartoon book has a Mickey Mouse on the cover.
A. whom B. whose C. who D. which
3.―What kind of movies do you like?
―I like the movies are about Chinese history.
A. who B. whom C. whose D which
4. ― What are you looking for?
― I?蒺m looking for the pen my father gave me last week.
A. who B. which
C. whose D. whom
5. Steve Jobs is one of the persons founded Apple Computer Company. His death marked the end of an era (时代).
A. who B. whom
C. which D. /
6. Mr. Smith is smoking is looking for she lost yesterday.
A. whom; which
B. who; what
C. that; who
D. which; where
7. It?蒺s interesting that there are many people speak French in Canada.
A. which B. where
C. who D. what
8. I hate people don?蒺t help others when they are in trouble.
A. they B. who
C. which D. what
9. The most important thing we should pay attention to is the first thing I have said.
A. which; that
B. that; which
C. which; which
D. that; that
10. The question is written on the blackboard is difficult.
A. who B. which
关键词:高考 强调句型 考点
在高考英语试卷中,强调句已经成为高考热点。命题者加大了对句子结构复杂程度和知识面的考查,同时注重考查知识之间的交叉和语法知识的力度,这就要求我们在平时的复习和备考中注意总结,全面把握,深入研究。
一、 强调句式的基本结构
强调句型的结构是:it be+被强调部分+that(强调句型中不用when,where,what等,但是如果被强调的是人可以用who/whom)+其余的部分。一个句子除了不能强调谓语和定语以外,其他成分都可强调,被强调的部分可以是主语、宾语和状语等。
以I met him on the street last night.为例。
1.强调主语
It was I that who met him on the street last night.
就是我昨天晚上在街上遇见了他。
2.强调宾语
It was him that I met on the street last night.
我昨晚在街上遇到的就是他。
3.强调地点状语
It was on the street that I met him last night.
昨晚我就是在街上遇到了他。
4.强调时间状语
It was last night that I met him on the street.
就是昨天晚上我在街上遇到了他。
此外,还可以强调原因或方式状语。例如:
It was because he was ill that he did not attend the meeting.
因为他病了,才没来参加会议。
It was on foot that he arrived at the village the other day.
那天他就是步行到达了那个村庄。
二、强调句式的正确判断
强调句型的强调部分必须是对that/who之后句子的某一成分表示强调,如果把“It is (was)…that”去掉,该句应该意思完整,不缺任何句子成分。
1.如果强调句型指现在或未来情况用it is,指过去情况用it was.
Was it her that you referred to?
你指的就是她吗?
2.被强调部分往往是句子的主语、宾语、时间状语和地点状语,但有时也可以强调比较复杂的内容,如时间状语从句、条件状语从句、原因状语从句及not until …,not only…but also…,as well as …等结构。
It was because he missed the early bus that he was late for conference.
就是因为错过了早班车他开会才迟到了。
3.被强调部分是人称代词时,原句用什么格,强调句也用什么格。
It was we who respected all our teachers.
最尊重我们老师的就是我们。
4.关于强调句型的选用,强调人时可用who或that;如果不强调人一律用that.此时绝不能和定语从句混淆,被强调部分为时间状语、地点状语或者原因状语时不能用when,where或why.
It was in this school that I studied English for three years.
就是在这所学校我学了三年英语。
It was this school where I studied English for three years.(定语从句)
这就是我学了三年英语的学校。
It was on October 1,1949 that the People@s Republic of China was founded.(强调句)
就是在1949年的10月1日了。
It was October 1,1949 when the People's Republic of China was founded.(时间状语从句)
当的时候是1949年10月1日。
三、强调句式的疑问句
强调句型的一般疑问句结构为:Is /Was…who/that…?
Was is it that silver is not widely used as a conductor?
究竟是因为什么银不能作为导体呢?
四、含有“not…until…”句型的强调句式
在对not…until引导的时间状语从句进行强调时,主句要用正序。比较下列三个句子:
1.She did not remember her appointment with the doctor until she had arrived home.
2.Not until she had arrived home did she remember her appointment with the doctor.
3.It was not until she had arrived home that she remember her appointment with the doctor.
五、强调句型的反义疑问句形式
句式特征为:It is/was+被强调部分+that…,isn't/wasn't it?
一、 定语从句与同位语从句
定语从句和同位语从句都置于被修饰的名词或代词之后,形式上非常相似,尤其是由that引导时,最难区分。实际上,两者的根本区别在于句法功能不同,与先行词的关系不同。
1. 句法功能不同
定语从句相当于一个形容词,用来修饰、描述或限制其前面的名词、代词(称为先行词)或整个句子;同位语从句则相当于一个名词,是先行词所述内容的展开,即说明先行词的具体内容。
定语从句的引导词that在从句中一定充当句子成分;而同位语从句中的引导词that(被称为连接代词)在从句中只起连接作用,不充当任何句子成分。
定语从句的引导词在从句中作宾语或状语时,可以省略或被其他词代替;而同位语从句的引导词则一般不能省略,也不能被代替。
例1The news (that / which) we picked up from his informal conversation is true.我们从他的闲谈中听到的那个消息是真实的。
例2The news that Mr Li will teach us English next semester is true. 李先生下学期将教我们英语这个消息是真实的。
点评: 例1的中that从句是定语从句,其作用相当于一个形容词,用来限定the news, that在从句中作宾语,可省略。例2中的that从句是同位语从句,其作用相当于一个名词,本身就是the news的内容,that不能省略。
2. 与先行词关系不同
定语从句所修饰、限定的先行词可以是名词或代词,当that省略时,定语从句本身是一个不完整的句子。而同位语从句通常与一些本身有具体内容可展开的名词连用,对这些名词进行补充说明或解释。常见的此类名词有:answer, belief, doubt, decision, explanation, fact, hope, idea, information, message, news, order, possibility, problem, promise, question, reason, story, suggestion, thought, truth等。同位语从句本身是一个完整的句子,常用that连接而不是用which 引导,that本身不充当句子成分,表示疑问意义的名词(如doubt, question等)后也可用whether, who, what等疑问词引导。
例3The fact (that / which) she told me yesterday is very important.她昨天告诉我的事实非常重要。
例4The fact that she hasn’t known the result of the examination is clear.她还不知道考试成绩这个事实是显而易见的。
点评: 例3中that / which引导的是定语从句,修饰fact,用以限定说明是哪个fact,that / which作told的宾语,可省略。例4中that引导的是同位语从句,用以说明fact的内容,that不充当句子成分,不可省略。
【甄别的方法】
同位语从句与其所修饰的名词之间存在逻辑上的系表关系(即系动词与表语的关系),因此,可用“主+系+表”的结构来区别同位语从句和定语从句。
比如:将例2的从句与其修饰的名词用“主+系+表”结构来表示,则为:The news is that Mr Li will teach us English next semester,句意通顺,系表结构成立,故可判定其为同位语从句。若将例1的从句与其修饰的名词用“主+系+表”结构表示,句意不通顺,句子不成立,可判定其不是同位语从句。
二、 定语从句与强调句型
当定语从句以It is / was... that... 形式出现时,极易与强调句型混淆。区分两者的关键在于正确判别it和that在句子中的作用。
1. 句法功能不同
在It is / was... that...的结构中,如从句为定语从句,则句首的it是指示代词,担任主句的主语,that担任从句的主语或宾语,作宾语时可以省略;如为强调句型,则it和that都是引导词,本身无意义,that不充当句子成分,不能省略。
例5It is a question that needs careful consideration.这是一个需要慎重考虑的问题。
例6It is novels that she enjoys reading.她喜欢阅读的是小说。
点评: 例5中It为主句的主语,相当于a question;that引导的是定语从句,用来修饰先行词a question,that同时充当从句的主语,不能省略。例6中的It显然不能等同于novels,that不担任句子成分,但不能省略。
2. 涉及对象不同
定语从句的先行词通常是名词、代词或名词短语,而强调句型中被强调的部分可以是名词、副词、介词短语和从句。
例7This is the museum (that) we visited last year.这就是我们去年参观过的博物馆。
例8It was in this museum that we saw the famous painting. 我们就是在这家博物馆里见到这幅名画的。
例9It was because she was ill that we decided to return. 正是因为她病了,我们才决定返回。
点评: 例7中的从句为定语从句,修饰、限定名词the museum。例8为强调句型,强调in this museum这一介词短语。例9为强调句型,强调because she was ill这个原因状语从句。
【甄别的方法】
在It is / was... that... 结构中区分强调句型和定语从句的方法如下:一是定语从句中的that充当句子成分,而强调句型中的that不充当句子成分。二是去掉It is / was和that并作适当调整后,强调句型的结构和意思仍然完整;而定语从句中的that充当主语,如果省略that的话,句子结构不再完整。
如例5,虽然去掉It is和that后句子仍然成立,但that充当从句的主语,是不能省略的,故为定语从句。而例6中that不充当句子成分,去掉It is和that并适当调整后,句子结构仍然完整,句意成立。
应当特别指出的是,当强调句型中含有定语从句时,更容易出错。我们可以通过分析that或who在从句中的作用,以及从句的句意来区分强调句型和定语从句。
例10It was in the lab that was set up by Mr Smith that they finished the experiment.他们是在Smith先生建立的实验室里完成这个实验的。
点评: 例10中的前一个that在从句中作主语,不能省略,可用which替换,因此可判定为定语从句,限定其前的名词the lab。而后一个that不担任句子成分,但不可省略,由此可见是强调句型,强调实验是在这个实验室完成的。
三、 定语从句与状语从句
状语从句中,容易与定语从句相混淆的是where引导的地点状语从句、when引导的时间状语从句和that引导的结果状语从句。
1. 有无先行词不同
当where,when引导定语从句时,其前必定有一个地点名词或时间名词。但当where,when引导地点状语和时间状语从句时,则会有两种情况:一种情况是从句前没有名词,另一种是从句前有名词,但从句并不修饰该名词。
例11 Bamboo grows well at the places where there is plenty of rain.
例12Bamboo grows well where
there is plenty of rain.
点评: 这两个句子均可译为“竹子在雨水充沛的地方长得好”。例11中where前有表地点的名词places,故为定语从句。例12中的where前则没有表示地点的名词,根据句意,应为地点状语从句。
例13I will always remember the days when I lived with my grandparents in the country.
例14I always remember the days in the country when I see the photo of my grandparents.
点评: 例13意为“我会永远记得跟我祖父母一起住在乡下的那些日子”,其中when 引导的是一个定语从句, 修饰the days, when在从句中作时间状语。例14意为“当我看到祖父母的照片时,总是会想起在乡下的那些日子”,其中when 引导的从句并不修饰前面的名词the country,因此可判定为时间状语从句。
2. 引导词不同
当定语从句的先行词前面有so / such修饰时,常用as替代that / which作引导词, 在从句中担任一定的句子成分,一般不省略。当状语从句中含有so / such... that结构时,that是从属连词,引导结果状语从句,不担任句子成分。
例15This is such an interesting book as all of us want to read.这样一本有趣的书,我们大家都想读一读。
例16This is such an interesting book that all of us want to read it.这本书是如此有趣,以至于我们大家都想读一读。
点评: 例15为定语从句,其中的关系代词as指代先行词book,在定语从句中作及物动词read的宾语,但不能省略(这与that / which在定语从句中作宾语时可省略的情况不同)。例16中that引导的是结果状语从句,that在从句中不担任成分,因此从句中仍然保留了宾语it。
【甄别的方法】
当where, when引导定语从句时,一般可被“介词+ which”替换。如例11中where可用at which 代替,即从句可改为...at which there is plenty of rain;例13中的when可用in which替代,即从句可改为...in which I lived with my grandparents in the country.
当where, when引导状语从句时,由于没有先行词,因而不能用“介词+which”来替换。如例12中的where不能用“介词+ which”替代;例14中从句前有名词,但根据句意可知并不是从句所修饰的对象,也不能用“介词+ which”来替代。
例15和例16中as和that引导的从句均出现在名词后,极易混淆。区别的关键在于as为关系代词,在从句中担任句子成分,而that为从属连词,在从句中不担任句子成分。如例15中as作read的宾语,因此read后不再有别的宾语出现;例16中that不担任句子成分,而从句谓语read是及物动词,就必须要有宾语it。这是同学们最容易忽略的地方,答题时一定要注意这一点。
四、 训练题
1. He was educated at a local grammar school, _____ he went on to Cambridge.
A. from which B. after that
C. after which D. from this
2. Nobody believed his reason for being absent from the class _____ he had to meet his uncle at the airport.
A. why B. that
C. where D. because
3. It was on a Sunday afternoon _____ I went to visit an old friend of mine.
A. when B. on which
C. which D. that
4. It was Sunday _____ I got back to school and met with Tom.
A. that B. when
C. on which D. where
5. Gone are the days _____ we spent together in the mountainous village.
A. that B. when
C. where D. on which
6. Mary was worried about the possibility _____ her daughter might hate to go to school.
A. which B. that
C. if D. as
7. If a shop has chairs _____ women can park their men, women will spend more time in the shop.
A. that B. which
C. when D. where
8. Where is it _____ he found the watch _____ he had lost the other day?
A. that; that B. which; that
C. when; which D. when; that
9. Such a book _____ you showed me yesterday is difficult to understand.
A. that B. which
C. what D. as
10. His plan was such a good one _____ we all agreed to accept it.
定语从句一直是英语学习的重点,也是高考常考的语法点。虽然涉及定语从句的条目林林总总,但从题目的设置来看,总带有一定的普遍现象,即一些经常遇到的且学生必须掌握的知识,在试题中反复出现。为便于同学们学习掌握,笔者扼要地对它的几种考查点进行了归纳和解析,以期对大家有所启迪。
考点一:which和as引导的非限制性定语从句是高考设题的热点
1.which常用来指代前面的名词或整个句子的内容,一般情况下,用逗号把它与先行词隔开。整个主句作为先行词时,从句的谓语动词要用第三人称单数。
【典例1】It is the third time that she has won the race, has surprised us all. (2012年陕西卷)
A. thatB. where
C. whichD. what
解析:C。句意:这是第三次了,她赢得了这场比赛,这使我们大家感到惊讶。所填词前有逗号,是非限制性定语从句,先行词是整个主句,关系词在从句中作主语,故选C。
【典例2】That evening, I will tell you more about later, I picked up my friend at the airport.
A. thatB. which
C. whatD. when
解析:B。句意:那天晚上,关于它以后我会告诉你更多,我去飞机场接朋友去了。which引导非限制性定语从句,指代前面的That evening。
2.as可以替代which的用法,且as还有下列用法:as从句可放到主句前面,当从句的谓语动词是be announced/expected/known/reported/said/imagined/shown等被动形式或usually happened/be often the case等表示主句习惯性或司空见惯之意时。
【典例1】A lot of language learning,has been discovered, is happening in the first year of life, so parents should talk much to their children during that period. (2012年安徽卷)
A. asB. it
C. whichD. this
解析:A。句意:已经发现,很多语言学习发生在人生的第一年,所以父母应该给那段时期的孩子多讲话。在非限制性定语从句中,先行词是A lot of language learning is happening in the first year of life,关系代词指整个一句话,引导词用as,在从句中作主语。
【典例2】The water quality in the lake,is shown in the report, has improved over the past two years. (2012年福建卷)
A. thatB. it
C. asD. what
解析:C。句意:正如报告中显示的,湖里水的质量在过去的两年里得到了改善。as引导非限制性定语从句,意为“正如在报告中所写的那样”,指代整个主句。
考点二: “介词+关系代词”引导的定语从句是高考设题的重点
“介词+关系代词”引导的定语从句,即把从句中的某一介词或介词短语提到关系代词前。
1.简单介词+关系代词
用于此结构的关系代词指人时只能用whom, 指物时只能用which;介词选择的依据主要是根据从句中的动词、形容词、名词与介词的固定搭配而定;或者以先行词与从句中的动词关系及所表达的含义而定;或者以先行词在定语从句中的作用和含义而定。但是,某些含有介词的短语动词不能拆开,介词仍然放在动词之后。
【典例1】Care of the soul is a gradual processeven the small details of life should be considered. (2012年湖南卷)
A. whatB. in what
C. whichD. in which
解析:D。句意:心灵的护理是一个逐渐的过程,在这个过程中,甚至生活中那些微小的细节都应该加以考虑。in which引导非限制性定语从句,which指代前面的process。
【典例2】I always wanted to get the job which Id been trained.
A. onB. for
C. byD. of
解析:B。句意:我过去总是想得到这份我为之训练的工作。train作动词意为“训练”,后面的定语从句说明是什么样的工作,介词for表目的。
2.表示部分的词语+of+关系代词
此时,指人的关系代词只能是whom, 指物的关系代词只能是which。表示部分的词语常见的有:不定代词all, both, none, neither, either, some, any;数词(含基数词,序数词,分数和百分数);数词+名词;the +最高级/比较级,以及表示数目或数量的词语many, most, few, several, enough, half a, a quarter。 有时为了行文的需要,也可把表示部分的词放在关系代词的后面。
【典例1】In our class there are 46 students, half wear glasses. (2012年四川卷)
A. in whomB. in them
C. of whomD. of them
解析:C。句意:我们班有46个人,一半人戴眼镜。前后两句话之间无连词,故不能用人称代词them,而应用关系代词whom引导定语从句;在46个学生当中,表所属应用of。
【典例2】Helen has written two novels, both of have been made into films.
A. themB. that
C. whichD. what
解析:C。句意:Helen写了两部小说,且都被拍成了电影。句中的先行词是two novels,而且后面是一个非限制性定语从句,因此用both of which引导。
考点三:where引导的定语从句是高考设题的难点
1. 先行词是表示地点的名词时,如果从句中不缺少主语、宾语或表语,引导词常用where,where在从句中充当地点状语。
【典例1】A bank is the place they lend you an umbrella in fair weather and ask for it back when it begins to rain. (2011年浙江卷)
A. whenB. that
C. whereD. there
解析:C。句意:银行,是在天晴之时借伞给你,到了下起雨来就催你还回去的地方。连接副词where在从句中代替place充当状语。
【典例2】These fish can be put into the refrigerator, it will keep for one or two weeks.
A. whenB. which
C. whereD. while
解析:C。句意:这些鱼可以放入冰箱,在那里可以保存一两周。先行词refrigerator在从句中作地点状语,故选择关系副词where。when在从句中作时间状语;which在从句中作主语或宾语;while是连词,不能用于定语从句。
2.近年高考试题中对于where的考查趋于复杂化,由“明显的地点”转为“模糊的地点”。当先行词是case, point, stage, situation, position, career, business, activity等某人/物的情况、某事发展的阶段、某事的某个方面的名词时,且定语从句中缺少状语时,常用where引导。
【典例1】Sales director is a position communication ability is just as importance as sales(2012年重庆卷)
A. whichB. that
C. whenD. where
解析:D。position为先行词,后面是其定语从句,关系词在从句中作的是地点状语,因此,应该使用关系副词where,来引导定语从句。
【典例2】Many people believe that the earth is unlike to be the only planetlife has developed gradually.
A. thatB. where
C. whichD. whose
解析:B。句意:许多人认为地球不可能是唯一的生命逐渐发展的星球。where相当于in which引导定语从句修饰planet,且在从句中作状语。
考点四:whose与“the+名词+of+关系代词”是新增的考点
1.whose在从句中充当定语,既可修饰人也可修饰物。
【典例1】I wish to thank Professor Smith, withouthelp I would never have got this far. (2012年天津卷)
A. whoB. whose
C. whomD. which
解析:B。句意:我要感谢Smith教授,没有他的帮助我不会走到今天这一步。who不可放在介词后,help在从句中作主语,其前缺少定语,故用whose修饰help。
【典例2】The prize will go to the young manstory shows the most imagination.
A. thatB. which
C. whoseD. what
解析:C。story shows the most imagination修饰先行词the young man;先行词the young man和story有所属关系,所以用whose。
2.“the+名词+of+关系代词”结构中的关系代词只能用which。该结构表示所有关系,口语中常用“whose +名词”代替,非正式文体中可以用“of which the +名词”。
【典例1】She showed the visitors around the museum, the construction had taken more than three years. (2011年江西卷)
A. for whichB. with which
C. of whichD. to which
解析:C。句意:她带领客人参观博物馆,博物馆的建造工程花费了超过三年的时间。先行词为museum,在从句中充当定语,介词用of。
【典例2】The dinning room, the walls of are painted light green, is really a peaceful place for us, specially after hard work.
A. thatB. it
C. whatD. which
解析:D。先行词为The dinning room,代入定语从句为the walls of the dinning room are painted light green,因为关系代词在从句中作介词的宾语且指物,故用which。
考点五:关系代词与关系副词的辨析是高考设题的焦点
关系代词一般作从句的主语、宾语或表语,而关系副词一般作从句的状语(分别是地点、时间、原因)。
【典例1】Youll find taxis waiting at the bus station you can hire to reach your host family. (2011年上海卷)
A. whichB. where
C. whenD. as
解析:A。句意:你会发现等在车站的出租车,你可以雇佣到你的房东家。hire后缺少宾语,故用which。
【典例2】We live in an agemore information is available with greater ease than ever before. (2012年浙江卷)
A. whyB. when
C. to whomD. on which
解析:B。句意:我们生活在一个时代,更多信息可以比以往更轻易有效的时代。when引导定语从句,在从句中作时间状语,修饰先行词an age(时代)。
考点六: that, who, whom, when, why的用法是高考设题的冷点
that引导的定语从句,用法颇多,平时教材及相关资料上讲述也较多;who, whom主要用于修饰人,用法简单; when在从句中作时间状语;why在从句中作原因状语。但这些知识点在高考设题上不是太多,why在选择题上从未设过题。
【典例1】After the flooding, people were suffering in that area, urgently needed clean water, medicine and shelter to survive. (2012年江苏卷)
A. whichB. who
C. whereD. what
解析:B。句意:洪水后,那个地区受灾的人们,急需干净的水、医药和生存的庇护所。指人的先行词people在非限制性定语从句中充当主语,所以用关系代词who引导。
【典例2】The old town has narrow streets and small houses are built close to each other.
A. theyB. where
C. whatD. that
解析:D。句意:这个老城镇拥有建的彼此靠近的狭窄的街道和狭小的房屋。定语从句中缺少主语指物,因此用 that 。
考点七:定语从句设题的其他关注点
1.定语从句中有插入语,具有干扰项,这增加了做题的难度。
【典例】He made another wonderful discovery,of great importance to science.
A. which I think is
B. which I think it is
C. which I think it is
D. I think which is
解析:A。句意:他作出了又一次惊人的发现,我认为这是很重要的科学。句中I think是插入语,对做题有干扰。
2.分裂式定语从句,因把先行词同从句隔开,具有迷惑性,容易选错答案。
【典例1】I walked up to the top of the hill with my friend, we enjoyed a splendid view of the lake.(2011年陕西卷)
A. whichB. where
C. whoD. that
解析:B。句意:我同朋友一起走到山顶,在那儿我们享受到了湖泊最美的风景。先行词是top,在此处指地点,关系词在从句中作地点状语,故用关系副词where。
【典例2】The days are gone we depended on the others.
A. whenB. that
C. whereD. which
解析:A。句意:我们依赖别人的日子一去不复返了。句中先行词days在从句中充当时间状语,故用when引导分隔式定语从句。
3.定语从句与名词从句、状语从句及强调句型等在一起混合使用,增加了解题的难度。
【典例1】Word comes free books will be given to come first in this book fair.
A. which;no matter who
B. that;anyone who
C. which;whoever
D. that;those who
解析:D。句意:免费书籍发放给最先到达书市的那些人的消息传来了。第一空填that引导同位语从句,表示word的内容。第二空those是先行词,后接who引导的定语从句。
【典例2】―Where did you get to know your husband?
―It was on the farm we worked.
A. thatB. there
C. whichD. where
解析:D。句意:你在哪儿认识了你的丈夫?那是在我们工作的农场(我认识了他)。where we worked作farm的定语,句末随前省略了强调句型的后半句that I got to know him。
4.限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句的区别。
限制性定语从句删去后,句子明显不完整或很突兀,有时就像病句。非限制性定语从句对主句起到一个补充说明的作用,不起任何限制。非限制性定语从句最明显的标志就是有“,”与主句或先行词隔开。非限制性定语从句是不能由that, why引导的。
【典例1】Ellen was a painter of birds and of nature, , for some reason, had withdrawn from all human society. (2012年浙江卷)
A. whichB. who
C. whereD. whom
解析:B。句意:Ellen是一个以鸟类和大自然为主的画家,出于某种原因,她已经从所有的人类活动中退出。who引导非限制性定语从句,在从句中作主语,修饰先行词Ellen。which修饰先行词是物的定语从句;whom修饰的先行词为人,且在从句中作宾语;where修饰的先行词是地点名词,且在从句中作地点状语,均不符合语境,故排除。
【典例2】 She has a gift for creating an atmosphere for her students allows them to communicate freely with each other.(2011年福建卷)
A. whichB. where
C. whatD. who
解析:A。句意:她拥有为她的学生创造一种允许他们互相自由交流气氛的天赋。在先行词atmosphere的定语从句中缺少主语,故用which引导。
巩固提高
1. There is a periodI hated to meet anyone.
A. howB. which
C. whenD. where
2. My aunt bought me an MP4 player,pleased me a lot.
A. whereB. which
C. likeD. that
3. Peter failed to pass the examination again,made his parents very angry.
A. thatB. which
C. itD. who
4. He has six friends there,is a teacher.
A. all of them
B. all of whom
C. none of them
D. none of whom
5. Its the same storyI heard from my classmate just now.
A. while B. which
C. likeD. as
6. In my hometown there is a deep lake, depth has never been measured.
A. that B. whose
C. which D. where
7. It is disgraceful the wayhe treats his parents.
A. / B. which
C. whereD. how
8. Doing your homework is a sure way to improve your test scores, and this is especially trueit comes to classroom tests.
A. beforeB. since
C. whenD. after
9. is mentioned above, the number of the students in senior schools is increasing.
A. Which B. As
C. That D. It
10. The house is being repaired by the workerswe once lived.
A. whichB. where
C. that D. whom
11. I have never seen such a beautiful movieis directed by Zhang Yimou.
A. asB. that
C. which D. it
12. This morning I bought a new notebook, is a picture of an actress.
A. which cover
B. the cover of which
C. its cover
D. the cover of whose
13. There are some moving stories at the school,was near the center of the quake and lost most of its 70 teachers and 473 students.
A. whichB. where
C. thatD. when
14. None of her classmates were killed or injured during the disaster, because the buildingthey studied was among the newest on campus.
A. for whichB. to which
C. from whichD. in which
15. “I have no money, but I have blood.” This word is from a farmer,moved many of us.
A. whichB. that
C. whomD. whose
答案与解析
1.C。名词period意为“一段时间,时期”,后接的定语从句中缺少时间状语,故选when。
2.B。which引导非限制性定语从句,which指代前面的句子。
3.B。that不能引导非限制性定语从句,it不能引导从句,who修饰的先行词必须是人,故本题选B,which指代前面一句话。
4.D。因从句谓语用了is,其主语不能用all,排除A和B。如在C项前加and,则C对。
5.D。句意:这故事跟我刚才从我同学那儿听到的相同。as引导定语从句,在从句中充当heard的宾语。
6.B。名词depth前缺少定语,故用whose,whose depth=the depth of the lake。其余的词在定语从句中不可作定语。
7.A。way作先行词时,如果从句中缺少状语,定语从句的引导词用that或in which,并且引导词还可以省略。
8.C。when it comes to…是一个固定句型,意为“当谈到……时”。
9.B。as用来引导定语从句,指代主句的整个概念,位置可置于句首,句中或句末,而which引导的从句只置于句末。
10.B。本题考查的是分裂式定语从句。定语从句的先行词是the house,而引导词在从句中作状语。
11.A。与such a beautiful movie 搭配应是as。
12.B。the cover of which=whose cover。
13.A。 which引导非限制性定语从句,which指代前面的the school。